World History, 1750 to 1950
The American Revolution (1775-1783)
Britain ruled thirteen colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America. After the costly Seven Years' War (1756-63) it taxed the colonists (for example the Stamp Act, 1765) without giving them seats in Parliament. The colonists' slogan was no taxation without representation. In 1773 colonists dumped tea into Boston harbour (the Boston Tea Party). War began in 1775; the Declaration of Independence, drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted on 4 July 1776. The British army surrendered at Yorktown in 1781, and the Treaty of Paris (1783) recognised the United States. The Constitution was adopted in 1787 and George Washington became the first President in 1789.
The French Revolution and Napoleon
The causes were an absolute monarchy (Louis XVI), a huge debt (partly from helping the Americans), a society split into three Estates in which the Third Estate paid most taxes, and the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu. When the Estates-General met in May 1789 the Third Estate formed a National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789). The Bastille prison fell on 14 July 1789. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen followed in August 1789. The republic was proclaimed in 1792; Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793; the Reign of Terror (1793-94) under Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety followed.
Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in 1799 and crowned himself Emperor in 1804. His Civil Code (1804) gave equality before law and protected property. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. The Congress of Vienna (1814-15), led by the Austrian minister Metternich, restored the old monarchs. The slogan to remember is liberty, equality, fraternity.
Nationalism in Europe: Italy and Germany
After Vienna (1815) Europe was divided into kingdoms, and liberal and national risings broke out, notably in 1830 and 1848. Nationalism then built two new states. Italy was a patchwork of states. Giuseppe Mazzini founded the secret society Young Italy (1831); Count Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, used diplomacy; Garibaldi and his Red Shirts took Sicily and Naples in 1860. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 under Victor Emmanuel II, and Rome was added in 1871.
Germany was unified from above by Prussia under its chief minister Otto von Bismarck, who followed a policy of blood and iron. Three wars made the nation: against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71). William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles in January 1871.
| Country | Key figures | Completed |
|---|---|---|
| Italy | Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II | 1861 (Rome 1871) |
| Germany | Bismarck, William I | 1871 |
The Russian Revolution of 1917
Russia under Tsar Nicholas II was poor, autocratic and badly hurt by the First World War. After Bloody Sunday (1905) the Tsar allowed a weak parliament (the Duma). In the February Revolution (1917) bread riots and strikes in Petrograd forced the Tsar to abdicate and a Provisional Government (later led by Kerensky) took over but continued the war. In the October Revolution (1917) the Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power with the slogan peace, land and bread.
Lenin took Russia out of the war by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918). A civil war between the Red and White armies followed; the New Economic Policy (1921) allowed limited private trade; the Soviet Union (USSR) was formed in 1922. After Lenin died (1924), Stalin rose and from 1928 ran the Five-Year Plans with forced collectivisation of farms. The revolution inspired anti-colonial and socialist movements worldwide.
Indo-China
Indo-China means Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, which France controlled from the nineteenth century and joined in the Indo-Chinese Union (formed 1887; Laos added in 1893). Vietnamese nationalists answered French rule through reform and revolt (for example Phan Boi Chau). Ho Chi Minh founded the Communist Party in 1930 and the Viet Minh in 1941. Japan occupied the region in 1940-41 and was defeated in 1945, and Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnamese independence on 2 September 1945.
France tried to return, and the First Indo-China War ended with the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu (1954). The Geneva Accords (1954) divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel into a communist North and a non-communist South. The United States then backed the South in a long war; American forces left under the Paris agreement of January 1973, and Vietnam was reunified under communist rule in 1975-76. India took part in the supervision of the 1954 ceasefire through an International Control Commission, chaired by India.
The First World War and the League of Nations
Causes: rivalry for colonies and markets, militarism, secret alliances and aggressive nationalism. Europe split into the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia). The spark was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 by the Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip. War followed in 1914. Italy stayed neutral and joined the Entente in 1915; the USA entered in 1917; Russia left in 1918. Fighting stopped with the armistice of 11 November 1918.
The Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919) was a harsh settlement for Germany: a war-guilt clause, heavy reparations, loss of colonies and of Alsace-Lorraine (returned to France), a small army, and a ban on union with Austria. US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (January 1918) inspired the League of Nations, formed on 10 January 1920 with headquarters at Geneva. It could not use its own army and the USA never joined. It failed over Japan's seizure of Manchuria (1931) and Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (1935), and was wound up in 1946.
Nazism and the Second World War
Germany's defeat, the Versailles humiliation, inflation and the Great Depression (from 1929) wrecked the weak Weimar Republic. Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party promised revenge, work and a pure German race, and blamed Jews and communists. Hitler became Chancellor on 30 January 1933; the Reichstag fire (February 1933) gave him an excuse to suspend rights; the Enabling Act (March 1933) let him rule by decree. After President Hindenburg died in 1934 he became Führer. The Nuremberg Laws (1935) stripped Jews of citizenship, and the Holocaust murdered about six million Jews along with Roma and others. Nazi rule lasted twelve years, until May 1945.
The Second World War began on 1 September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland; Britain and France declared war on 3 September. Earlier, appeasement had failed at the Munich Agreement (1938). The Axis powers were Germany, Italy and Japan (Tripartite Pact, 1940); the Allies were chiefly Britain, the USSR (after Germany attacked it in June 1941), the USA and France. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor (7 December 1941) brought in the USA. D-Day (6 June 1944) opened the Western front. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. The USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (6 August) and Nagasaki (9 August 1945); Japan's formal surrender was signed on 2 September 1945.
| Event | Date |
|---|---|
| Germany invades Poland | 1 Sep 1939 |
| Pearl Harbor attacked | 7 Dec 1941 |
| D-Day landings | 6 Jun 1944 |
| Germany surrenders | 8 May 1945 |
| Atomic bombs on Japan | 6 and 9 Aug 1945 |
The United Nations
The League's failure and the war led the Allies to found the United Nations. The Charter was signed at San Francisco on 26 June 1945 and came into force on 24 October 1945 (celebrated as UN Day). There were 51 original members, India among them; as of 2026 the UN has 193 member states. The headquarters is in New York. Its aims are peace and security, friendly relations, development and human rights; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted on 10 December 1948.
| Principal organ | Key point |
|---|---|
| General Assembly | All members, one vote each |
| Security Council | 15 members: 5 permanent with veto (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) and 10 elected for two years |
| Economic and Social Council | Economic and social work |
| International Court of Justice | Sits at The Hague |
| Secretariat | Headed by the Secretary-General |
| Trusteeship Council | Suspended its work in 1994 |
Key takeaways
- Order the revolutions: American (declaration 1776, Treaty of Paris 1783), French (Bastille 14 July 1789, republic 1792, Napoleon emperor 1804, Waterloo 1815), Russian (February and October 1917).
- Italy: Mazzini the thinker, Cavour the diplomat, Garibaldi the soldier, kingdom in 1861. Germany: Bismarck, three wars, empire proclaimed in January 1871.
- Indo-China: French rule, Viet Minh under Ho Chi Minh, independence declared 2 September 1945, Dien Bien Phu 1954, Geneva Accords split Vietnam at the 17th parallel.
- First World War: Triple Alliance against Triple Entente, Sarajevo 28 June 1914, armistice 11 November 1918, Versailles 28 June 1919.
- Nazism rose from Versailles resentment and the Depression; Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933. The Second World War began on 1 September 1939 and ended in August-September 1945.
- League of Nations: 1920, Geneva, USA never joined. United Nations: charter signed 26 June 1945, in force 24 October 1945, New York, 193 members as of 2026, five veto-holding permanent members.
Practice questions (18)
Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.
In which year did the thirteen American colonies adopt the Declaration of Independence from Britain?
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Answer: B — 1776
The Declaration of Independence was adopted on 4 July 1776. The tempting year 1783 is when the Treaty of Paris recognised the independence, and 1789 is when Washington became President and the French Revolution began, not the declaration.Arrange these events of the French Revolution and after in the correct order, earliest first:
P. Napoleon crowns himself Emperor;
Q. Fall of the Bastille;
R. Execution of Louis XVI;
S. Tennis Court Oath.Show answer
Answer: A — S, Q, R, P
The Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789) came before the fall of the Bastille (14 July 1789); Louis XVI was executed in January 1793 and Napoleon became Emperor in 1804. The order Q, S, R, P is tempting because the Bastille is the better-known event, but the Oath preceded it.Consider these statements on the unification of Italy.
P. Mazzini founded the secret society Young Italy.
Q. Garibaldi led his Red Shirts in Sicily and Naples in 1860.
R. Cavour was prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia.
S. Bismarck directed the unification of Italy.
Which statements are correct?Show answer
Answer: B — P, Q and R only
P, Q and R are correct. S is wrong because Bismarck unified Germany under Prussia, not Italy. The option naming only P and Q is tempting but leaves out Cavour, who was prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia and the diplomat of unification.At which place, and following the victory over France in which war, was William I of Prussia proclaimed German Emperor in January 1871?
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Answer: C — Versailles, after the Franco-Prussian War
William I was proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in January 1871, after Prussia's victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. The war of 1866 against Austria is tempting but it ended earlier and did not involve France; Vienna 1815 restored old monarchs.By which treaty, signed in March 1918, did the Bolshevik government take Russia out of the First World War?
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Answer: B — Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Lenin's government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies in March 1918 and left the war. Versailles (1919) is tempting but it settled the war with Germany after the armistice and Russia was not a party to it.Match the person with the role.
P. Lenin;
Q. Kerensky;
R. Ho Chi Minh;
S. Robespierre. Roles:
1. Founder of the Viet Minh;
2. Leader of the Bolsheviks in 1917;
3. Led the Reign of Terror in France;
4. Head of the Russian Provisional Government.Show answer
Answer: A — P-2, Q-4, R-1, S-3
Lenin led the Bolsheviks, Kerensky headed the Provisional Government, Ho Chi Minh founded the Viet Minh in 1941, and Robespierre dominated the Terror of 1793-94. The pair of Lenin and Kerensky is the one examiners swap: Kerensky was the man the Bolsheviks overthrew.Which Portuguese navigator reached Calicut in India by the sea route around Africa in 1498?
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Answer: D — Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498. Bartolomeu Dias is tempting because he rounded the Cape of Good Hope earlier (1488) but did not reach India. Columbus sailed west for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492.Which of the following was a member of the Triple Entente, and not of the Triple Alliance, at the start of the First World War in 1914?
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Answer: D — Russia
Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente. Italy was formally a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, though it stayed neutral in 1914 and joined the Entente only in 1915, which makes it the tempting wrong answer.Which of the following was NOT a term imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles (1919)?
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Answer: C — Permission to unite with Austria to form a larger Germany
The treaty forbade union with Austria; it did not permit it. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, Germany accepted war guilt and reparations, lost its colonies and had its army limited, so each of those is a real term and not the answer.Approximately how many whole years did Nazi rule over Germany last, counting from Hitler becoming Chancellor on 30 January 1933 to Germany's surrender on 8 May 1945?
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Answer: C — 12 years
From January 1933 to May 1945 is 12 years and about 3 months, so 12 whole years. The figure of 10 years is the trap if one counts from 1935, the year of the Nuremberg Laws, instead of from the Chancellorship.Arrange in correct order, earliest first:
P. Japan attacks Pearl Harbor;
Q. Germany invades Poland;
R. Allied landings in Normandy (D-Day);
S. Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.Show answer
Answer: B — Q, P, R, S
Poland was invaded in September 1939, Pearl Harbor attacked in December 1941, D-Day was in June 1944 and Hiroshima was bombed in August 1945. Starting with Pearl Harbor is the common slip, since it is the better-known date, but the war was already two years old.Which event on 1 September 1939 led Britain and France to declare war on Germany two days later?
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Answer: B — The German invasion of Poland
Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 triggered the declarations of 3 September. The Munich Agreement (1938) was the earlier policy of appeasement, and Pearl Harbor (1941) and the fall of France (1940) came later.Which step gave Hitler the legal power to make laws by decree in 1933?
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Answer: C — The Enabling Act
The Enabling Act of March 1933, passed after the Reichstag fire, let the government rule by decree. The Nuremberg Laws (1935) targeted Jews' citizenship, and the Beer Hall Putsch (1923) was a failed attempt to seize power, so neither gave decree powers.Consider these statements.
P. The Boston Tea Party took place in 1773.
Q. The British surrender at Yorktown came in 1781.
R. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 recognised American independence.
S. The American Constitution was adopted in 1776.
Which statements are correct?Show answer
Answer: C — P, Q and R only
P, Q and R are correct. S is wrong because 1776 is the year of the Declaration of Independence; the Constitution was adopted in 1787. The statement S is the usual trap because 1776 is the most famous American date.The French defeat at which battle in 1954 ended their rule in Indo-China and was followed by the division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel?
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Answer: A — Dien Bien Phu
The French were beaten at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 and the Geneva Accords then split Vietnam at the 17th parallel. Waterloo (1815) ended Napoleon, Yorktown (1781) ended the American war, and Sarajevo (1914) is where the Archduke was shot, so each belongs elsewhere.Consider these statements about international organisations.
P. The International Court of Justice sits at The Hague.
Q. The League of Nations had its headquarters at Geneva.
R. The UN Charter was signed at San Francisco in June 1945.
S. The United States was a founding member of the League of Nations.
Which statements are correct?Show answer
Answer: A — P, Q and R only
P, Q and R are correct. S is wrong because the United States, though Wilson proposed the League, never joined it, as the Senate did not ratify Versailles. The pair P and Q alone is incomplete as R is also true.In the Security Council of the United Nations as structured since the 1965 expansion, 5 members are permanent and the others are elected for two-year terms. If 5 non-permanent members are elected each year, how many non-permanent seats are there in total?
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Answer: B — 10
With two-year terms and 5 new members every year, two batches sit together, so 5 × 2 = 10 non-permanent seats; with the 5 permanent members the council has 15. The figure 15 is the whole council, not only the elected seats.Which of these countries was NOT among the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council named in the Charter of 1945?
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Answer: A — Germany
The Charter named the Republic of China, France, the USSR, the UK and the USA. Germany, a defeated Axis power in 1945, was not one of them. The Soviet Union is tempting only for a reader who thinks of it as an opponent of the West, but it was a victorious Ally and a permanent member.