Which are assumptions of parametric tests such as the t-test? Select all that apply.

Data measured on an interval or ratio scale

An approximately normal population distribution

Roughly equal variances in the groups compared

Data measured on an interval or ratio scale

An approximately normal population distribution

Data in the form of frequencies in categories

Roughly equal variances in the groups compared

Assertion (A): Community radio broadcasts in local dialects on local concerns. Reason (R): In India, community radio licences are given only to commercial broadcasters. Choose the correct option.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Which pairings of a parametric test with its non-parametric counterpart are correct? Select all that apply.

Paired t-test — Wilcoxon signed-rank test

One-way ANOVA — Kruskal-Wallis H test

Pearson's r — Mann-Whitney U test

Independent t-test — Friedman test

Paired t-test — Wilcoxon signed-rank test

One-way ANOVA — Kruskal-Wallis H test

Which theory adds perceived behavioural control to attitudes and subjective norms as a predictor of intention?

The Theory of Planned Behaviour

Communication for Development II: Role of Communication in Development and Writing for Development, Concerns of Development Communication, Advocacy and Behaviour Change Communication, Traditional, Modern and New Media, Development Communication Agencies, and Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests

This chapter completes Unit IX with items 5 to 10. It covers the role of communication in development, development journalism and writing for print, radio, television and the internet; the concerns development communication addresses, from gender and health to literacy and tribal development; advocacy and behaviour change communication, with the theories and models behind them; traditional folk forms, modern media and the new media of ICTs for development; and the international, national, state and local organisations working in the field. It ends with the Unit IX research slice: analysing data with parametric and non-parametric tests, including a chi-square test worked in full. That slice builds directly on the descriptive and inferential statistics of chapter 18 and the logic of hypothesis testing in chapter 10.

1. Role of communication in development; development journalism; writing for development

Communication is needed at every stage of development work: to share information about programmes and entitlements, to create awareness and motivation, to teach skills, to change attitudes and behaviour, to give people a voice and feedback to planners, and to build participation and ownership. Development journalism, which took shape in Asia in the 1960s, reports on development processes and their effect on people, critically examining whether programmes reach those they are meant for, rather than reporting events and officials alone; development support communication supports specific projects with planned communication.

Medium	Writing for development
Print (newspapers, leaflets, posters, booklets, newsletters)	Simple words and short sentences suited to the readers' literacy; the inverted pyramid for news (most important first); a clear headline and one main message; pictures for low-literacy readers; pretesting with the audience
Radio	Writing for the ear: conversational language, short sentences, repetition of key points, sound effects and music; formats include talks, interviews, discussions, drama, magazine programmes, phone-ins and farm and home broadcasts
Television and video	Picture first, words to support it; a two-column script with visuals on one side and audio on the other; demonstrations suit the medium
Internet and social media	Short, scannable text with headings, links and visuals; interactive and shareable content; attention to accuracy and misinformation; local languages and voice for low-literacy users

2. Concerns of development communication

Gender: challenging stereotypes, reaching women through channels they actually use, portraying women as agents rather than only beneficiaries, and involving men.
Health: from information, education and communication (IEC) to behaviour change and social and behaviour change communication, on immunisation, breastfeeding, sanitation, anaemia, non-communicable diseases and epidemics.
Environment and sustainability: water conservation, waste segregation, clean energy, climate adaptation; the challenge is linking global issues to local, daily choices.
Human rights: awareness of entitlements under laws and schemes, and giving marginalised groups a voice.
Population: from family planning campaigns to reproductive health and rights, informed choice and male involvement.
Literacy: mobilising learners and volunteers, from the National Literacy Mission (1988) and Saakshar Bharat (2009) to the New India Literacy Programme (ULLAS) for adults.
Rural and tribal development: communication in local languages and cultural forms, respect for indigenous knowledge, awareness of rights over land and forests, and two-way channels that let communities shape programmes.

3. Advocacy and behaviour change communication

Advocacy is organised action to influence policies, laws, resource allocation and decision makers on behalf of an issue or group; behaviour change communication (BCC) is the strategic use of communication to promote positive behaviours in individuals and communities; social and behaviour change communication (SBCC) combines them, working at individual, community, social and policy levels, as the socio-ecological model suggests. An advocacy campaign identifies the issue, gathers evidence, sets objectives, maps target audiences and allies, frames messages, chooses channels, acts and monitors.

Theory or model	Key constructs
Health Belief Model	Perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action and self-efficacy
Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen)	Attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norms shape intention, which predicts behaviour; the later theory adds perceived behavioural control
Transtheoretical (stages of change) model	Precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance; messages matched to stage
Social cognitive theory (Bandura)	Observational learning, modelling, self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism
P-Process and COMBI	Planning frameworks: analysis, strategic design, development and pretesting, implementation and monitoring, evaluation and replanning; WHO's Communication for Behavioural Impact for specific behavioural results

Applications in India include the polio eradication campaign's community mobilisation, Swachh Bharat's messaging on toilet use, Mission Indradhanush, Anaemia Mukt Bharat's year-round behaviour change communication, and COVID-19 messages on masks and distancing. Challenges are sustaining change once campaigns end, addressing structural barriers (money, access, gender norms) that messages alone cannot shift, reaching the most marginalised, avoiding victim-blaming, and measuring and attributing change.

⚠️ Awareness is not behaviour

Most people already know that handwashing prevents disease; many still do not wash hands with soap at critical times. BCC therefore targets barriers, norms, self-efficacy and cues, not knowledge alone. A campaign judged only by how many people heard its message has measured reach, not change.

4. Traditional, modern and new media for development

Folk form	Examples
Songs and ballads	Folk songs, powada ballads of Maharashtra, burrakatha storytelling of Andhra Pradesh
Theatre	Nautanki (Uttar Pradesh), tamasha (Maharashtra), jatra (Bengal and Odisha), yakshagana (Karnataka), bhavai (Gujarat), terukkuttu (Tamil Nadu); street theatre (nukkad natak)
Puppetry	String puppets (kathputli of Rajasthan), shadow puppets (tholu bommalata of Andhra Pradesh, togalu gombeyata of Karnataka, ravanchhaya of Odisha), glove puppets (pavakoothu of Kerala), rod puppets (putul nach of West Bengal)
Art and dance	Wall paintings, rangoli and folk dances carrying health and social messages

Folk media are cheap, credible, participatory and in the audience's own idiom, though their reach is local and messages must be woven in without distorting the form; the government's Song and Drama Division used them for decades before its merger into the Central Bureau of Communication in 2017. Modern media include print, radio (All India Radio), television (Doordarshan), cinema and public service advertising, which reach large audiences quickly but mostly one way. New media and ICTs for development make communication two-way and local. Community radio, first licensed to educational institutions in 2002 and opened to NGOs and other non-profit bodies in 2006 (Anna FM, at Anna University, began in 2004 as the first campus station), broadcasts in local dialects on local concerns. Participatory video puts cameras in community hands, as in Digital Green's farmer-made videos. Social media and mobile phones carry voice advisories (the Kisan Call Centres since 2004, on 1800-180-1551), audio messages to pregnant women and mothers (Kilkari), and information portals.

5. Organisations and agencies working for development communication

Level	Organisations
International	UNESCO (its International Programme for the Development of Communication, and the MacBride Commission's report Many Voices, One World, both 1980), UNICEF (communication for development and social and behaviour change), FAO, WHO, UNDP, UNFPA, the World Bank, the International Telecommunication Union, BBC Media Action, the Johns Hopkins Center for Communication Programs, and AMARC, the world association of community broadcasters
National	Ministry of Information and Broadcasting with Prasar Bharati (All India Radio and Doordarshan), the Central Bureau of Communication, the Press Information Bureau and the Indian Institute of Mass Communication (1965); ISRO's Development and Educational Communication Unit; the Consortium for Educational Communication; the Directorate of Extension and MANAGE in agriculture; the National Institute of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj; ICAR with its Krishi Vigyan Kendras; the National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development; the National Institute of Health and Family Welfare
State	State departments of information and public relations, State Institutes of Rural Development, extension directorates of the State Agricultural Universities and their Home Science colleges, state IEC bureaus in health, regional Doordarshan and AIR stations
Local	NGOs such as SEWA and PRADAN, community-based organisations, self-help groups, community radio stations, panchayats, anganwadi and ASHA workers

6. Research methods IX: analysis of data through parametric and non-parametric tests

Parametric tests estimate or compare population parameters (means, variances) and assume that the data are measured on an interval or ratio scale, that the population is normally distributed (or the sample large), that variances in the groups compared are roughly equal, and that observations are independent and randomly sampled. Non-parametric (distribution-free) tests make fewer assumptions: they suit nominal or ordinal data, small samples and skewed distributions, working with ranks or frequencies, at some cost in power when parametric assumptions actually hold. The descriptive statistics these tests start from, and the standard error, were set out in chapter 18; the decision rule is chapter 10's.

Research situation	Parametric test	Non-parametric counterpart
Compare two independent groups	Independent-samples t-test (z-test for large samples with known SD); df = n₁ + n₂ − 2	Mann-Whitney U test
Compare two related measurements (before and after, matched pairs)	Paired t-test; df = n − 1	Wilcoxon signed-rank test; sign test
Compare three or more independent groups	One-way ANOVA, F = mean square between / mean square within; df k − 1 and N − k	Kruskal-Wallis H test
Compare three or more related measurements	Repeated-measures ANOVA	Friedman test
Relationship between two variables	Pearson's r	Spearman's rho; Kendall's tau
Association between categorical variables; goodness of fit	-	Chi-square test (independence or goodness of fit); McNemar test for paired nominal data

Worked chi-square test of independence. Of 100 mothers, 50 attended a breastfeeding counselling session and 50 did not; 35 of those who attended and 20 of those who did not practised exclusive breastfeeding. The column totals are 55 (practising) and 45 (not). Each expected frequency is row total × column total / N: 50 × 55 / 100 = 27.5 practising and 22.5 not in each group. χ² = Σ(O − E)² / E = (35 − 27.5)² / 27.5 + (15 − 22.5)² / 22.5 + (20 − 27.5)² / 27.5 + (30 − 22.5)² / 22.5 = 2.045 + 2.5 + 2.045 + 2.5 = 9.09. The degrees of freedom are (rows − 1)(columns − 1) = 1, and the critical value at 0.05 is 3.84 (6.63 at 0.01), so the association is significant: counselling and exclusive breastfeeding are related. The test requires expected frequencies of at least 5 in each cell; Yates's correction is often applied in 2 × 2 tables with small expected values.

🧠 Choosing a test in three questions

What level of measurement is the outcome (nominal, ordinal, interval-ratio)? How many groups, and are they independent or related? Are the parametric assumptions met? Interval data, two independent groups, normal: t-test. Ordinal data, two independent groups: Mann-Whitney U. Frequencies in categories: chi-square.

Key takeaways

Communication informs, educates, motivates, gives voice and builds participation; writing differs by medium: plain print with the inverted pyramid, radio for the ear, television picture first, web text short and scannable.
Advocacy targets policy; BCC and SBCC target behaviour at several levels, using the Health Belief Model, the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour, stages of change and social cognitive theory.
Folk media include nautanki, tamasha, jatra, yakshagana, bhavai, burrakatha and puppetry; community radio was licensed from 2002 (educational institutions) and 2006 (NGOs); Kisan Call Centres began in 2004.
UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO and WHO work internationally; Prasar Bharati, the Central Bureau of Communication, IIMC, ISRO's DECU, MANAGE, NIRDPR, ICAR's KVKs and NIPCCD nationally; SIRDs and SAUs in the states; NGOs, SHGs and community radio locally.
Parametric tests (t, ANOVA, Pearson) assume interval data, normality and equal variances; their non-parametric counterparts are Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon, Kruskal-Wallis, Friedman and Spearman, with chi-square for frequencies (df = (r − 1)(c − 1)).

Practice questions (10)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

In a 2 × 2 table, 50 counselled and 50 uncounselled mothers were classified by exclusive breastfeeding: counselled 35 yes and 15 no, uncounselled 20 yes and 30 no. What is the chi-square value, to two decimal places? Type the number.
Numerical answer — type the value.
Show answer
Answer: 9.09
Expected frequencies are 27.5 (yes) and 22.5 (no) in each group. χ² = 56.25/27.5 + 56.25/22.5 + 56.25/27.5 + 56.25/22.5 = 2.045 + 2.5 + 2.045 + 2.5 = 9.09, which exceeds 3.84 (df = 1, 0.05), so the association is significant.
A chi-square test of independence uses a contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns. How many degrees of freedom does it have? Type the number.
Numerical answer — type the value.
Show answer
Answer: 6
df = (rows − 1)(columns − 1) = (3 − 1)(4 − 1) = 2 × 3 = 6. Using the total number of cells (12) or rows plus columns (7) is the usual mistake.
Ranked satisfaction scores (ordinal data) are compared between two independent groups of hostel residents. The appropriate test is:
1. Paired t-test
2. Wilcoxon signed-rank test
3. One-way ANOVA
4. Mann-Whitney U test
Show answer
Answer: D — Mann-Whitney U test
Ordinal data from two independent groups call for the Mann-Whitney U test, the non-parametric counterpart of the independent t-test. The paired t-test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test are for related samples, and ANOVA assumes interval data and compares three or more groups.
Which are assumptions of parametric tests such as the t-test? Select all that apply.
1. Data measured on an interval or ratio scale
2. An approximately normal population distribution
3. Data in the form of frequencies in categories
4. Roughly equal variances in the groups compared
Show answer
Answer: A — Data measured on an interval or ratio scale; B — An approximately normal population distribution; D — Roughly equal variances in the groups compared
Parametric tests assume interval or ratio data, normality and homogeneity of variance, with independent random observations. Frequency counts in categories are analysed by the non-parametric chi-square test.
In the Health Belief Model, a woman's belief that she personally could develop anaemia is:
1. Perceived severity
2. Perceived susceptibility
3. Perceived barriers
4. A cue to action
Show answer
Answer: B — Perceived susceptibility
Perceived susceptibility is the belief about one's own risk of a condition. Perceived severity is how serious one thinks the condition is, perceived barriers are the costs of acting, and a cue to action is a trigger such as a reminder or a symptom.
Assertion (A): Community radio broadcasts in local dialects on local concerns. Reason (R): In India, community radio licences are given only to commercial broadcasters. Choose the correct option.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: C — A is true, but R is false
A is true and R is false. Community radio is local, participatory, non-profit broadcasting; in India licences went to educational institutions from 2002 and were extended to NGOs and other non-profit bodies in 2006, not to commercial broadcasters.
Which traditional theatre form belongs to Karnataka?
1. Nautanki
2. Tamasha
3. Yakshagana
4. Bhavai
Show answer
Answer: C — Yakshagana
Yakshagana is the dance-drama of coastal Karnataka. Tamasha belongs to Maharashtra, nautanki to Uttar Pradesh and bhavai to Gujarat; all have been used to carry development messages.
Which pairings of a parametric test with its non-parametric counterpart are correct? Select all that apply.
1. Pearson's r — Mann-Whitney U test
2. Independent t-test — Friedman test
3. Paired t-test — Wilcoxon signed-rank test
4. One-way ANOVA — Kruskal-Wallis H test
Show answer
Answer: C — Paired t-test — Wilcoxon signed-rank test; D — One-way ANOVA — Kruskal-Wallis H test
Kruskal-Wallis replaces one-way ANOVA and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test replaces the paired t-test. Pearson's r is paired with Spearman's rho, the independent t-test with Mann-Whitney U, and the Friedman test replaces repeated-measures ANOVA.
Which theory adds perceived behavioural control to attitudes and subjective norms as a predictor of intention?
1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour
2. The Theory of Reasoned Action
3. The two-step flow hypothesis
4. The Health Belief Model
Show answer
Answer: A — The Theory of Planned Behaviour
Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behaviour extends the Theory of Reasoned Action by adding perceived behavioural control, a person's sense that the behaviour is within their power. The Health Belief Model uses susceptibility, severity, benefits and barriers instead.
Which international organisation runs the International Programme for the Development of Communication, set up in 1980?
1. The World Bank
2. WHO
3. UNESCO
4. FAO
Show answer
Answer: C — UNESCO
The IPDC is UNESCO's programme for strengthening media in developing countries, set up in 1980, the year of the MacBride Commission's report Many Voices, One World. FAO, WHO and the World Bank support development communication within their own sectors.