Which of the following are components of the Human Development Index? Select all that apply.

Mean and expected years of schooling

Assertion (A): Social marketing applies the four Ps of commercial marketing to the promotion of healthy behaviours. Reason (R): Rostow's stages of growth end with the age of high mass consumption. Choose the correct option.

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Which statements about theories of development are correct? Select all that apply.

The human development approach defines development as expanding people's capabilities

The basic needs approach gives priority to food, shelter, health and education

Dependency theory attributes underdevelopment to the exploitation of the periphery by the core

Modernisation theory holds that traditional values are the main engine of development

The human development approach defines development as expanding people's capabilities

The basic needs approach gives priority to food, shelter, health and education

Dependency theory attributes underdevelopment to the exploitation of the periphery by the core

Which of the following are examples of non-verbal communication? Select all that apply.

Keeping a respectful distance (proxemics)

Tone of voice and pauses (paralanguage)

A reassuring touch on the shoulder (haptics)

Keeping a respectful distance (proxemics)

Tone of voice and pauses (paralanguage)

A reassuring touch on the shoulder (haptics)

Communication for Development I: Basics of Communication, Models, Communication Systems and Theories, the Concept, Theories and Measurement of Development, and Development Communication Approaches

Unit IX joins communication to development. This first chapter takes items 1 to 4: the nature, elements, principles and barriers of communication, with perception, persuasion, empathy, the types and levels of communication and the process of listening; the classic models of communication; human interaction, mass communication and message design theories, communication systems and culture; the concept of development, its theories and models and the indicators used to measure it; and the models and approaches of development communication, including diffusion of innovations, the mass media and social marketing. The Paper-1 communication chapters cover the basics for teachers; this chapter treats communication as a Home Science extension worker uses it, to bring about change in families and communities.

1. Basics of communication

Communication, from the Latin communis (common), is the process of sharing meaning through symbols. It is a dynamic, continuous, two-way, transactional and irreversible process that always takes place in a context. Its elements are the source or sender, the message, encoding, the channel, the receiver, decoding, feedback, noise and the context. Harold Lasswell named its social functions as surveillance of the environment, correlation of the parts of society in responding to it, and transmission of the social heritage, to which Charles Wright added entertainment; in development work the functions are to inform, educate, persuade, motivate and mobilise. Good messages follow principles such as the seven Cs: clarity, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, consideration, completeness and courtesy.

Barriers are physical (noise, distance, poor equipment), physiological (hearing or speech impairment, fatigue), semantic (jargon, language differences, words with different meanings), psychological (prejudice, emotions, closed minds, selective perception), cultural (different values and norms) and organisational (hierarchy, too many levels).
Perception filters every message: people selectively expose themselves to, attend to, perceive and retain messages that fit their existing beliefs.
Persuasion works through the credibility of the source (ethos), emotional appeal (pathos) and reasoned argument (logos), in Aristotle's terms; the elaboration likelihood model of Petty and Cacioppo distinguishes a central route (careful thought about arguments, giving lasting change) from a peripheral route (cues such as an attractive source, giving short-lived change).
Empathy, understanding a situation from the other person's point of view, is the foundation of effective extension communication.

Classification	Types
By code	Verbal (oral and written) and non-verbal: kinesics (body movement, gesture, facial expression), proxemics (use of space), haptics (touch), chronemics (use of time), paralanguage (tone, pitch, pauses), appearance and artefacts
By level or setting	Intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, public, organisational, mass and intercultural
By direction and formality	Vertical (downward, upward), horizontal and diagonal; formal channels and the informal grapevine

Edward T. Hall's proxemics describes four zones of interpersonal distance in his studies of Americans: intimate (up to about 45 cm), personal (about 45 cm to 1.2 m), social (about 1.2 to 3.6 m) and public (beyond about 3.6 m); the distances vary between cultures. Listening is an active process distinct from hearing: it involves receiving, understanding, remembering, interpreting and evaluating the message and responding. Listening may be discriminative, comprehensive, critical, empathetic or appreciative, and it is blocked by distraction, prejudging the speaker, planning one's reply and emotional reactions.

2. Models of communication

Model	Type	Core idea
Aristotle	Linear	Speaker, speech, audience and occasion; the art of persuasion
Lasswell (1948)	Linear	"Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?"
Shannon and Weaver (1949)	Linear, mathematical	Information source, transmitter, channel, receiver and destination, with noise; introduced noise as a concept
Berlo (1960)	Linear	SMCR: source, message, channel, receiver, each with sub-elements such as communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system and culture
Osgood and Schramm (1954)	Circular, interactive	Each party encodes, interprets and decodes in turn; communication succeeds where fields of experience overlap
Westley and MacLean (1957)	Mass communication	Gatekeepers select and shape messages between events and audiences, with feedback
Dance's helical model (1967)	Developmental	Communication grows and builds on what went before, like a helix
Barnlund's transactional model (1970)	Transactional	Both parties send and receive at once, in shared contexts, with verbal and non-verbal cues

⚠️ Shannon and Weaver versus Berlo

Noise as an element enters with Shannon and Weaver, who modelled telephone signals; Berlo's SMCR model has no feedback or noise but elaborates each element with human factors. The overlap of fields of experience is Schramm's idea, and gatekeeping belongs to Westley and MacLean.

3. Communication systems and communication theories

Theory	Proponents	Claim
Symbolic interactionism	George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer	The self and meanings are built through interaction using symbols
Social penetration theory	Altman and Taylor (1973)	Relationships deepen as self-disclosure moves from superficial to intimate layers, like peeling an onion
Uncertainty reduction theory	Berger and Calabrese (1975)	Strangers communicate to reduce uncertainty about each other
Hypodermic needle (magic bullet)	Early mass society thinking (1920s and 1930s)	Media messages act directly and uniformly on a passive audience
Two-step flow	Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (The People's Choice, 1944); Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955)	Ideas flow from media to opinion leaders and from them to less active sections of the population
Uses and gratifications	Blumler and Katz (1974)	An active audience uses media to satisfy its own needs
Agenda setting	McCombs and Shaw (1972)	Media tell people not what to think but what to think about
Cultivation	George Gerbner	Heavy television viewing cultivates a view of reality matching television's (the "mean world syndrome")
Spiral of silence	Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (1974)	People who think their view is in the minority fall silent, making it seem still smaller
Knowledge gap hypothesis	Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970)	As media information increases, better-off, better-educated groups gain faster, widening the gap

Message design theories ask how messages should be built to be understood and to persuade. The Yale studies led by Carl Hovland examined the source (credibility, attractiveness), the message (one-sided or two-sided arguments, order, fear appeals) and the audience; two-sided messages work better with educated or initially opposed audiences, and strong fear appeals work only when paired with clear, feasible actions, as the extended parallel process model explains. The AIDA sequence (attention, interest, desire, action) guides advertising and campaign messages. A communication system is the set of interacting sources, channels and receivers through which a society exchanges information, from interpersonal and traditional networks to mass and digital media. Culture shapes all of it: Hall distinguished high-context cultures, where meaning lies in context and relationships (much of India), from low-context cultures that rely on explicit words, and Geert Hofstede compared national cultures on power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and later long-term orientation and indulgence.

4. The concept of development: theories, models, measurement and indicators

Development was first equated with economic growth and industrialisation, and has since widened to include human well-being, equity, freedom, participation and sustainability. Modernisation theory held that poor societies would develop by passing through the stages traced by rich ones: W. W. Rostow's five stages (1960) run from the traditional society through the preconditions for take-off, take-off and the drive to maturity to the age of high mass consumption, and Daniel Lerner (1958) saw mass media fostering the "empathy" of a mobile, modern personality. Dependency theory (Andre Gunder Frank and others) replied that underdevelopment results from the exploitation of a periphery by the core, and Immanuel Wallerstein's world-systems theory added a semi-periphery. The basic needs approach (ILO, 1976) put food, shelter, health and education first; the human development approach of Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen defines development as expanding people's capabilities and freedoms; and sustainable, participatory and Gandhian models (gram swaraj, sarvodaya, swadeshi) stress equity, local control and limits to growth.

Indicator	Components
GDP and GNI per capita	Output or income per person; says nothing of distribution
Physical Quality of Life Index (Morris D. Morris, 1979)	Infant mortality, life expectancy at age one and basic literacy, each scaled 0 to 100 and averaged with equal weights
Human Development Index (UNDP, since 1990)	A long and healthy life (life expectancy), knowledge (mean and expected years of schooling) and a decent standard of living (GNI per capita in PPP terms), combined by geometric mean since 2010
Gender Development Index and Gender Inequality Index	HDI compared for women and men; reproductive health, empowerment and labour market inequality
Multidimensional Poverty Index (UNDP and OPHI, since 2010)	Deprivations in health, education and living standards (ten indicators); NITI Aayog's national MPI uses twelve indicators
SDG India Index (NITI Aayog, since 2018)	States ranked on progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals

Worked: a region's infant mortality, life expectancy at age one and literacy are scaled to index values of 70, 60 and 80. Its PQLI is (70 + 60 + 80) / 3 = 70. Because PQLI averages its components with equal weights while the HDI takes a geometric mean, a very low value on one HDI dimension cannot be fully offset by high values on the others.

5. Development communication: models and approaches, diffusion, mass media and social marketing

Nora Quebral, who named the field at the University of the Philippines Los Baños in the early 1970s, defined development communication as the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfilment of human potential. Its approaches changed with ideas of development.

Approach	Key ideas
Diffusion of innovations (Everett Rogers, 1962)	Innovations spread through a social system over time; the innovation-decision process runs knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation (the earlier adoption model: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption); adopters are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards
Mass media approach	Wilbur Schramm's Mass Media and National Development (1964) saw media as multipliers of development information; India's Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (1975-76) took educational television to about 2,400 villages in six states, and Krishi Darshan (1967) brought farm programmes to Doordarshan
Critique of the dominant paradigm	By the mid-1970s, Rogers and others recognised that top-down, media-centred modernisation widened inequality and ignored local knowledge
Participatory approach	Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed: dialogue and conscientisation instead of one-way "banking"; people define their own problems and solutions; community media and participatory video
Social marketing (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971)	Commercial marketing techniques applied to social goods: the right product (a behaviour, service or item), price (money, time, effort), place and promotion, often with publics, partnership, policy and purse strings added
Entertainment-education	Educational messages woven into popular entertainment, pioneered by Miguel Sabido; India's first television soap opera, Hum Log (1984), carried messages on family planning and women's status

🧠 Five attributes that speed adoption

Rogers found that innovations spread faster when they have relative advantage, compatibility with existing values and practices, low complexity, trialability on a small scale and observable results. An improved cookstove that saves fuel, fits local cooking, is easy to use, can be tried and visibly reduces smoke meets all five.

Key takeaways

Communication has source, message, channel, receiver, feedback, noise and context; barriers are physical, physiological, semantic, psychological, cultural and organisational; Hall's zones are intimate, personal, social and public.
Lasswell (1948), Shannon and Weaver (1949, noise), Berlo's SMCR (1960), Osgood-Schramm (circular, overlapping fields of experience), Westley-MacLean (gatekeepers) and Barnlund (transactional) are the key models.
Two-step flow (1944), uses and gratifications, agenda setting (1972), cultivation, spiral of silence (1974) and the knowledge gap (1970) are the main mass communication theories.
Development theories run from modernisation (Rostow, Lerner) and dependency to basic needs and human development; PQLI averages infant mortality, life expectancy at one and literacy; HDI combines health, education and income.
Development communication (Quebral) uses diffusion of innovations, the mass media (SITE 1975-76), participatory communication (Freire), social marketing (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971) and entertainment-education (Hum Log).

Practice questions (10)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

A district's infant mortality, life expectancy at age one and basic literacy are scaled to index values of 70, 60 and 80. What is its Physical Quality of Life Index? Type the number.
Numerical answer — type the value.
Show answer
Answer: 70
PQLI is the simple average of its three indexed components: (70 + 60 + 80) / 3 = 210 / 3 = 70.
"Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?" is the model of:
1. Harold Lasswell
2. David Berlo
3. Dean Barnlund
4. Wilbur Schramm
Show answer
Answer: A — Harold Lasswell
Lasswell's 1948 verbal model frames communication as a sequence of questions about communicator, content, medium, audience and effect. Berlo's is the SMCR model, Schramm's the circular model and Barnlund's the transactional model.
The finding that media influence reaches most people through opinion leaders who first attend to the media is the:
1. Spiral of silence
2. Hypodermic needle theory
3. Cultivation theory
4. Two-step flow hypothesis
Show answer
Answer: D — Two-step flow hypothesis
Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet's study of the 1940 US election found that ideas flowed from media to opinion leaders and then to others, the two-step flow. The hypodermic needle theory assumed direct, uniform effects, which that study undermined.
Which of the following are components of the Human Development Index? Select all that apply.
1. Mean and expected years of schooling
2. Life expectancy at birth
3. Infant mortality rate
4. GNI per capita in PPP terms
Show answer
Answer: A — Mean and expected years of schooling; B — Life expectancy at birth; D — GNI per capita in PPP terms
The HDI's three dimensions are health (life expectancy), education (mean and expected years of schooling) and standard of living (GNI per capita, PPP). Infant mortality is a component of the older PQLI, not the HDI.
Assertion (A): Social marketing applies the four Ps of commercial marketing to the promotion of healthy behaviours. Reason (R): Rostow's stages of growth end with the age of high mass consumption. Choose the correct option.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
Both are true, but R does not explain A. Social marketing, set out by Kotler and Zaltman in 1971, adapts product, price, place and promotion to social goals; Rostow's stages belong to modernisation theory and have nothing to do with how social marketing works.
In Rogers's innovation-decision process, the stage in which a person actually puts the innovation into use is:
1. Implementation
2. Persuasion
3. Confirmation
4. Knowledge
Show answer
Answer: A — Implementation
The five stages are knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation (putting the innovation to use) and confirmation (seeking reinforcement for the decision). Persuasion is forming an attitude, before any decision or use.
According to Hall's proxemics, a conversation between acquaintances at a distance of about 1 metre falls in the:
1. Public zone
2. Intimate zone
3. Personal zone
4. Social zone
Show answer
Answer: C — Personal zone
Hall's personal zone runs from about 45 cm to 1.2 m, the distance of conversation between friends and acquaintances. The intimate zone is closer than about 45 cm, the social zone about 1.2 to 3.6 m and the public zone beyond that.
Which statements about theories of development are correct? Select all that apply.
1. Modernisation theory holds that traditional values are the main engine of development
2. The human development approach defines development as expanding people's capabilities
3. The basic needs approach gives priority to food, shelter, health and education
4. Dependency theory attributes underdevelopment to the exploitation of the periphery by the core
Show answer
Answer: B — The human development approach defines development as expanding people's capabilities; C — The basic needs approach gives priority to food, shelter, health and education; D — Dependency theory attributes underdevelopment to the exploitation of the periphery by the core
Dependency theory, the capability-based human development approach and the basic needs approach are correctly described. Modernisation theory treated traditional values as obstacles to be replaced by modern attitudes, not as the engine of development.
The theory that as media information spreads, better-educated groups acquire it faster so that differences between groups widen is the:
1. Agenda-setting theory
2. Knowledge gap hypothesis
3. Social penetration theory
4. Uses and gratifications theory
Show answer
Answer: B — Knowledge gap hypothesis
Tichenor, Donohue and Olien proposed the knowledge gap hypothesis in 1970, a warning for development communicators that information campaigns can widen inequality unless they are designed to reach the less advantaged.
Which of the following are examples of non-verbal communication? Select all that apply.
1. Keeping a respectful distance (proxemics)
2. Tone of voice and pauses (paralanguage)
3. A reassuring touch on the shoulder (haptics)
4. A written leaflet
Show answer
Answer: A — Keeping a respectful distance (proxemics); B — Tone of voice and pauses (paralanguage); C — A reassuring touch on the shoulder (haptics)
Paralanguage, proxemics and haptics all convey meaning without words. A written leaflet uses words and is verbal communication in written form.