According to Bandura, the most powerful source of self-efficacy is:

Mastery experiences — one's own successes

Mueller and Dweck (1998) found that, after a failure, children who had been praised for their intelligence (rather than their effort):

Persisted less and enjoyed the task less

Persisted more than effort-praised children

Chose harder problems to learn from

Persisted less and enjoyed the task less

Showed no difference from effort-praised children

In Egan's SOLER guide to attending behaviour, the letter "L" stands for:

Lean slightly toward the client

Limit the length of the session

Lean slightly toward the client

Assertion (A): Students taught to attribute failure to insufficient effort or poor strategy tend to persist longer after setbacks. Reason (R): In Weiner's framework, effort and strategy are unstable and controllable causes, so they imply that future outcomes can be changed. Choose the correct option.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Which of the following are features of Skinner's linear programmed instruction? Select all that apply.

Branching to remedial frames after errors

Egan's Skilled Helper model organises counselling into three stages. Which set is correct?

Current scenario, preferred scenario, way forward

Psychology in the School: Applying Theories of Motivation and Learning, Factors in Educational Achievement, Teacher Effectiveness, Guidance in Schools — Needs, Organisational Set-Up and Techniques — and Counselling Process, Skills and Techniques

The last block of Unit 9 reads: "Applications of theories of motivation and learning in School. Factors in educational achievement. Teacher effectiveness. Guidance in schools: Needs, organizational set up and techniques. Counselling: Process, skills, and techniques." It asks for applications of the theories already studied in Units 5 and 7, so this chapter works from them — self-determination, goal and attribution theory, self-efficacy, reinforcement, programmed and mastery learning, and cognitive and social-constructivist principles — then turns to the evidence on what predicts achievement, what makes teachers effective, how a school guidance service is organised, and the stages, microskills and approaches of counselling, including a worked sociometric index.

1. Applying theories of motivation and learning in school

Motivation theories in the classroom
Theory	Classroom application
Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan)	Support autonomy (choice, rationale), competence (optimal challenge, informative feedback) and relatedness; avoid controlling rewards that undermine intrinsic interest.
Achievement goal theory and mindset	Mastery goals (learning, improving) predict deeper strategies and persistence better than performance goals (outperforming others), especially performance-avoidance goals. Mueller and Dweck (1998) found that praising children's intelligence, rather than their effort, led to poorer persistence after failure — the basis of Dweck's fixed versus growth mindset.
Attribution theory (Weiner)	Attribution retraining teaches students to explain failure by effort or strategy — internal, unstable and controllable causes — rather than by low ability.
Self-efficacy (Bandura)	Build it through its four sources: mastery experiences (the strongest), vicarious experience (seeing similar peers succeed), verbal persuasion, and interpreting physiological states.
Expectancy–value theory (Eccles)	Choice and effort depend on expectancy of success and task value — attainment, intrinsic and utility value, minus cost.
Teacher expectancy	Rosenthal and Jacobson's Pygmalion study (1968): pupils randomly labelled as "bloomers" gained more in IQ, a self-fulfilling prophecy (the effect is real but smaller than first reported).

Behavioural applications: reinforcement and shaping; programmed instruction (Skinner's linear programmes — small steps, active responding, immediate feedback and self-pacing; Crowder's branching programmes); the Premack principle; token economies and contingency contracts; mastery learning (Bloom, building on Carroll's model of school learning, in which achievement depends on time spent relative to time needed).
Cognitive applications: Ausubel's meaningful reception learning and advance organisers; Bruner's discovery learning and spiral curriculum; Gagné's conditions of learning and nine events of instruction; the testing effect (retrieval practice beats rereading — Roediger and Karpicke, 2006) and spacing; teaching metacognitive strategies.
Social and constructivist applications: modelling and observational learning; Vygotskian scaffolding within the zone of proximal development; reciprocal teaching (Palincsar and Brown, 1984: predicting, questioning, clarifying, summarising); cooperative learning such as Aronson's jigsaw.

2. Factors in educational achievement and teacher effectiveness

Factors in educational achievement
Level	Factors and evidence
Student	General intelligence is the strongest single predictor (correlations around 0.5); prior knowledge; motivation and self-efficacy; conscientiousness, the Big Five trait most consistently linked to grades; study skills and self-regulation; test anxiety, with a cognitive "worry" component and a physiological "emotionality" component, of which worry does more harm. Matching teaching to supposed "learning styles" has little support.
Home	Socio-economic status, parental education, involvement and expectations, the home literacy environment and language of instruction. The Coleman Report (1966) concluded that family background outweighed school resources in explaining achievement differences.
School and teacher	Teacher quality, school climate, peer groups and class size (Project STAR, a large randomised experiment in the United States, found gains from small classes in the early grades). John Hattie's synthesis of meta-analyses (Visible Learning, 2009) takes an effect size of 0.40 as the "hinge point"; feedback and teacher–student relationships sit well above it.

Teacher effectiveness has been studied through teacher characteristics, classroom processes and outcomes. Ryans's Teacher Characteristics Study identified three dimensions: warm and understanding versus aloof; responsible and businesslike versus evading; and stimulating and imaginative versus dull. Process–product research (Rosenshine and Furst) linked achievement to clarity, enthusiasm, variability, task orientation and students' opportunity to learn; Mary Budd Rowe found that extending wait time after a question to three seconds or more lengthened and improved pupils' answers. Shulman added pedagogical content knowledge (1986) — knowing how to make a particular subject learnable. Jacob Kounin (1970) showed that effective classroom managers prevent problems through withitness (awareness of everything happening), overlapping, smooth transitions, momentum and group alerting. Flanders's Interaction Analysis Categories classify classroom talk into indirect and direct teacher talk, pupil talk and silence. Teacher self-efficacy predicts effectiveness, and burnout (Maslach: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment) undermines it.

3. Guidance in schools: needs, organisational set-up and techniques

Guidance is the process of helping individuals understand themselves and their opportunities so that they can make wise choices and adjustments. The needs it serves in schools are educational (choosing subjects and streams, study skills, learning difficulties), vocational (understanding the world of work, career choice and preparation) and personal–social (adjustment, peer and family relationships, emotional problems, health). These needs grow with the diversification of courses, individual differences in ability and interest, the transitions of adolescence, a rapidly changing labour market and the problem of wastage and stagnation. India's Secondary Education Commission (1952–53) and Education Commission (1964–66) both recommended guidance as an integral part of schooling.

Organisational set-up — delivering orientation, pupil appraisal, information, counselling, placement, follow-up and evaluation services
Element of the set-up	Role
Head of the institution and guidance committee	Leadership, policy, time-tabling and resources
School counsellor	Trained professional who coordinates the programme, tests and counsels
Career teacher and class teachers	First contact with pupils; observation, records, referral and group guidance
Specialists and community	School psychologist, medical officer and social worker; parents, employers and local agencies

Techniques are testing (aptitude, interest, personality and achievement tests) and non-testing: observation, interviews, questionnaires, rating scales, anecdotal records, autobiographies, the case study, the cumulative record card (a longitudinal file of a pupil's attainment, health, interests and activities) and sociometry — Moreno's technique in which pupils name preferred companions, displayed as a sociogram showing stars, isolates, mutual pairs and cliques. Worked: in a class of 31, a pupil chosen by 12 classmates has a sociometric choice status of 12 ÷ (31 − 1) = 0.4. Group techniques include orientation and career talks, career conferences and exhibitions, field visits, and group discussion.

4. Counselling: process, skills and techniques

Counselling is a professional relationship in which a trained helper assists a person to understand and resolve problems and to grow. Its process is usually described in stages:
(1) relationship building and rapport;
(2) assessment and exploration of the problem;
(3) goal setting;
(4) intervention or action; and
(5) evaluation, termination and follow-up. Gerard Egan's Skilled Helper model condenses this into three stages — the current scenario (what is going on?), the preferred scenario (what do I want instead?) and the way forward (how do I get there?).

Counselling microskills
Skill	What it involves
Attending	Non-verbal presence summarised by Egan as SOLER: face the client Squarely, adopt an Open posture, Lean slightly toward the client, keep good Eye contact and be Relaxed.
Active listening, paraphrasing and reflection of feeling	Restating content in the counsellor's words and naming the feeling behind it — the heart of accurate empathy (Carkhuff's five-level empathy scale, with level 3 as interchangeable understanding).
Questioning and probing	Open questions invite elaboration; closed questions obtain specific facts; probes focus and deepen exploration.
Clarifying and summarising	Checking meaning and drawing themes together, often at transitions and the end of a session.
Challenging skills	Confrontation of discrepancies, immediacy (discussing the here-and-now relationship), appropriate self-disclosure, interpretation and the purposeful use of silence.

Counselling techniques and approaches, individual or group, bound by ethics of confidentiality, informed consent, competence and appropriate referral
Approach	Features
Directive (counsellor-centred)	E. G. Williamson's trait-and-factor (Minnesota) approach: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counselling and follow-up; the counsellor gathers data, often from tests, and advises.
Non-directive (client-centred)	Carl Rogers: the client leads; the counsellor provides the core conditions and reflects, trusting the client's capacity for growth.
Eclectic	F. C. Thorne: selecting techniques from different approaches to suit the client and the problem.
Brief and motivational approaches	Solution-focused brief therapy (de Shazer and Berg: the miracle question, scaling and exception questions) and motivational interviewing (Miller and Rollnick: resolving ambivalence using OARS — open questions, affirmations, reflections and summaries).

Key takeaways

Motivation theory in school means supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness, fostering mastery goals and growth mindsets, retraining attributions toward effort and strategy, and building self-efficacy through mastery experiences.
Learning theory is applied through programmed and mastery learning, advance organisers and discovery learning, retrieval practice and spacing, scaffolding and reciprocal teaching.
Achievement depends on intelligence, prior knowledge, conscientiousness, motivation and anxiety, on home background (the Coleman Report) and on teachers, feedback and class size (STAR; Hattie).
Effective teachers show clarity, enthusiasm, task orientation, wait time, pedagogical content knowledge and Kounin's withitness; burnout undermines them.
School guidance meets educational, vocational and personal–social needs through an organised team and testing and non-testing techniques (cumulative records, sociometry); counselling moves from rapport to follow-up using microskills such as SOLER, reflection and summarising, in directive, non-directive or eclectic styles.

Practice questions (10)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

In a class of 31 pupils, each pupil may choose any classmates as preferred companions. A pupil is chosen by 12 classmates. What is the pupil's sociometric choice status, choices received ÷ (N − 1)? Type a number.
Numerical answer — type the value.
Show answer
Answer: 0.4
Choice status = 12 ÷ (31 − 1) = 12 ÷ 30 = 0.4. The denominator is N − 1 because a pupil cannot choose himself or herself.
According to Bandura, the most powerful source of self-efficacy is:
1. Verbal persuasion by a teacher
2. Mastery experiences — one's own successes
3. Reduced physiological arousal
4. Watching an expert perform
Show answer
Answer: B — Mastery experiences — one's own successes
Bandura ranked enactive mastery experiences as the strongest source, followed by vicarious experience (especially of similar peers), verbal persuasion and physiological and affective states.
Mueller and Dweck (1998) found that, after a failure, children who had been praised for their intelligence (rather than their effort):
1. Persisted more than effort-praised children
2. Chose harder problems to learn from
3. Persisted less and enjoyed the task less
4. Showed no difference from effort-praised children
Show answer
Answer: C — Persisted less and enjoyed the task less
Intelligence praise encouraged a fixed view of ability, so failure implied low ability and children gave up sooner; effort praise encouraged a growth view and persistence.
Kounin's term for a teacher's communicated awareness of everything happening in the classroom is:
1. Withitness
2. Pedagogical content knowledge
3. Scaffolding
4. Wait time
Show answer
Answer: A — Withitness
Withitness — having "eyes in the back of the head" — lets teachers catch problems early. Wait time is Rowe's pause after questions, scaffolding is Vygotskian support, and pedagogical content knowledge is Shulman's concept.
Which of the following are NON-TESTING techniques of guidance? Select all that apply.
1. Differential Aptitude Tests
2. Sociometry
3. Cumulative record card
4. Anecdotal records
Show answer
Answer: B — Sociometry; C — Cumulative record card; D — Anecdotal records
Cumulative records, sociometry and anecdotal records gather information without standardised tests. The Differential Aptitude Tests are a standardised testing technique.
In Egan's SOLER guide to attending behaviour, the letter "L" stands for:
1. Limit the length of the session
2. Listen for the latent content
3. Lean slightly toward the client
4. Lead the conversation
Show answer
Answer: C — Lean slightly toward the client
SOLER stands for facing the client Squarely, an Open posture, Leaning slightly forward, good Eye contact and being Relaxed — non-verbal signals of attention.
The counselling approach in which the counsellor collects data, largely through tests, diagnoses the problem and advises the client — associated with E. G. Williamson — is:
1. Motivational interviewing
2. Solution-focused brief therapy
3. Non-directive counselling
4. Directive counselling
Show answer
Answer: D — Directive counselling
Williamson's trait-and-factor approach is directive and counsellor-centred, moving through analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counselling and follow-up. Rogers's approach is non-directive.
Assertion (A): Students taught to attribute failure to insufficient effort or poor strategy tend to persist longer after setbacks. Reason (R): In Weiner's framework, effort and strategy are unstable and controllable causes, so they imply that future outcomes can be changed. Choose the correct option.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Both are true and R explains A: attributing failure to unstable, controllable causes keeps expectancy of future success high, which is the rationale of attribution retraining.
Which of the following are features of Skinner's linear programmed instruction? Select all that apply.
1. Branching to remedial frames after errors
2. Immediate feedback
3. Self-pacing
4. Small steps
Show answer
Answer: B — Immediate feedback; C — Self-pacing; D — Small steps
Linear programmes present small steps, require active responses, give immediate feedback and let learners work at their own pace. Branching to remedial frames is the feature of Crowder's intrinsic (branching) programmes.
Egan's Skilled Helper model organises counselling into three stages. Which set is correct?
1. Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
2. Current scenario, preferred scenario, way forward
3. Analysis, synthesis, diagnosis
4. Forming, storming, norming
Show answer
Answer: B — Current scenario, preferred scenario, way forward
Egan's three stages ask what is going on, what the client wants instead, and how to get there. The other sets are Williamson's steps, Tuckman's group stages and Selye's GAS.