Jensen's Level II ability refers to:

Conceptual reasoning and abstract problem solving, closely related to g

Rote memory and associative learning, as in digit span

Conceptual reasoning and abstract problem solving, closely related to g

Getzels and Jackson (1962) found that, compared with a high-IQ group, their high-creative adolescents:

Had a markedly lower mean IQ yet achieved as well at school

Were preferred by their teachers

Had higher IQs and higher achievement

Performed worse on every measure of achievement

Had a markedly lower mean IQ yet achieved as well at school

Assertion (A): Wallach and Kogan found creativity to be largely independent of intelligence in young children. Reason (R): They administered creativity tasks in a relaxed, untimed, game-like setting rather than under test-like conditions. Choose the correct option.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Which statements about Cattell's fluid and crystallised intelligence are correct? Select all that apply.

Crystallised intelligence tends to be maintained or to rise into old age

Fluid intelligence involves reasoning with novel problems

Fluid intelligence tends to decline from early adulthood

Crystallised intelligence tends to be maintained or to rise into old age

Fluid intelligence involves reasoning with novel problems

Crystallised intelligence is unaffected by education and culture

Fluid intelligence tends to decline from early adulthood

Intelligence and Creativity: Spearman, Thurstone, Jensen, Cattell, Gardner, Sternberg, Goleman and the PASS Model of Das, Kar and Parrila; Creativity after Torrance, Getzels and Jackson, Guilford, and Wallach and Kogan; and the Intelligence–Creativity Relationship

The second half of Unit 6 reads: "Intelligence: Spearman; Thurstone; Jensen; Cattell; Gardner; Stenberg; Goleman; Das, Kar & Parrila. Creativity: Torrance, Getzels & Jackson, Guilford, Wallach & Kogan. Relationship between Intelligence and Creativity." The document prints "Stenberg"; the theorist is Robert J. Sternberg, and he is taught under his correct name here. The syllabus lists eight theorists by name, so this chapter gives each one's own model — including Jensen's Level I and Level II abilities and the planning–attention–simultaneous–successive (PASS) theory of Das, Kar and Parrila with its roots in Luria — rather than a general survey, then sets out the four creativity programmes and what they concluded about creativity and IQ.

1. Spearman, Thurstone, Cattell and Jensen

The psychometric tradition
Theorist	Model
Charles Spearman (1904, 1927)	Two-factor theory: every test measures a general factor, g, shared by all mental tests (the "positive manifold" of their intercorrelations) plus a specific factor, s, unique to it. He saw g as a kind of mental energy and characterised it by the eduction of relations and correlates; he invented factor analysis (the tetrad-difference method) to demonstrate it.
L. L. Thurstone (1938)	Seven primary mental abilities from multiple-factor analysis: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning (induction). When the primary factors were themselves found to correlate, a second-order g reappeared.
Raymond B. Cattell	Fluid intelligence (Gf) — reasoning with novel problems, largely independent of schooling, peaking in early adulthood and then declining — and crystallised intelligence (Gc) — accumulated knowledge and skills, which holds up or rises into old age. In his investment theory, Gf is invested in learning to produce Gc. Horn extended the model, and Carroll's three-stratum theory combined them in the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model.
Arthur Jensen	Level I (associative) ability — rote learning and short-term memory, as in digit span — and Level II (conceptual, cognitive) ability — abstract reasoning and problem solving, closely related to g. He proposed that Level I is fairly evenly distributed across social classes while Level II is not, and studied g through reaction time and the speed of information processing. His 1969 article on the heritability of IQ and group differences provoked lasting controversy.

⚠️ Level I is not Gc

Jensen's Level I (rote association) and Level II (abstract reasoning) are not the same as Cattell's crystallised and fluid intelligence. Level II is close to g and to Gf, but Gc — vocabulary and general knowledge — is not "associative" ability in Jensen's sense.

2. Gardner, Sternberg and Goleman

Howard Gardner (Frames of Mind, 1983) proposed multiple intelligences — relatively independent capacities identified by criteria such as isolation by brain damage, the existence of savants and prodigies, a distinct developmental history, evolutionary plausibility and a symbol system. The original seven were linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily–kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal; he added naturalist intelligence in 1999 and discussed a possible existential intelligence. Critics note weak psychometric support and that several "intelligences" are talents.

Robert J. Sternberg ("Stenberg" in the official document); later elaborated as the theory of successful intelligence
Sternberg's triarchic theory (1985)	Content
Componential (analytical) subtheory	The internal mental mechanisms: metacomponents (planning, monitoring and evaluating problem solving), performance components (executing the strategies) and knowledge-acquisition components (learning new information).
Experiential (creative) subtheory	The ability to deal with novelty and to automatise processing with experience.
Contextual (practical) subtheory	Intelligence in everyday life: adapting to the environment, shaping it, or selecting a different one; includes tacit knowledge.

Emotional intelligence was introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990) and popularised by Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence (1995), which the syllabus names. Goleman's model has five domains: self-awareness, self-regulation (managing one's emotions), motivation, empathy and social skills, and he argued that they predict success in life and work beyond IQ. Mayer and Salovey's own ability model has four branches — perceiving, using, understanding and managing emotions — measured by the MSCEIT; Goleman's broader "mixed" model blends abilities with personality traits and has been criticised for overlapping with them.

3. The PASS model of Das, Kar and Parrila

J. P. Das, with Binod C. Kar and Rauno K. Parrila (Cognitive Planning, 1996) and with Jack Naglieri and John Kirby (1994), developed the PASS theory of intelligence from A. R. Luria's neuropsychological model of three functional units of the brain. Intelligence is described not as a quantity of g but as four interdependent cognitive processes.

PASS: planning, attention, simultaneous and successive processing
Process	Luria's functional unit	What it does
Planning	Third unit — prefrontal cortex	Selecting, applying and evaluating strategies; self-regulation and impulse control
Attention (arousal)	First unit — brainstem and reticular system	Maintaining arousal and focusing selectively while resisting distraction
Simultaneous processing	Second unit — occipital–parietal areas	Integrating separate elements into a single whole — matrices, spatial relations, understanding complex grammar
Successive processing	Second unit — fronto-temporal areas	Handling information in a serial order — remembering a sequence, decoding words, following instructions in order

The theory is measured by the Das–Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) and linked to remediation through the PASS Reading Enhancement Programme (PREP), which trains successive and simultaneous processing in children with reading difficulties. Its advantages are a basis in neuropsychology, smaller group differences than traditional IQ tests, and direct links from diagnosis to intervention — for example, children with attention-deficit problems score low on planning and attention, while many poor readers are weak in successive processing.

🧠 Luria's three units

First unit = arousal and attention (brainstem); second unit = coding, simultaneous and successive (posterior cortex); third unit = planning (frontal lobes). Read "PASS" backwards against the units: P is the third, A the first, S and S the second.

4. Creativity: Torrance, Getzels and Jackson, Guilford, and Wallach and Kogan

The four creativity programmes named in the syllabus
Researcher	Contribution
J. P. Guilford	His 1950 presidential address to the American Psychological Association launched modern creativity research. His Structure of Intellect model classifies abilities by operations × contents × products; it began with 120 abilities (5 × 4 × 6) and grew to 150 (5 × 5 × 6) and then 180 (6 × 5 × 6). He distinguished convergent production (one correct answer) from divergent production (many possible answers) — the core of creativity, scored for fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration.
E. Paul Torrance	The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (verbal and figural forms), scored for fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration; long-term follow-ups found that childhood scores predicted adult creative achievement.
Getzels and Jackson (1962)	Creativity and Intelligence compared a high-IQ group with a high-creative group of adolescents: the creative group had a mean IQ some 23 points lower yet achieved as well at school; teachers preferred the high-IQ pupils; and the creative group's stories and drawings were more humorous and unconventional.
Wallach and Kogan (1965)	Modes of Thinking in Young Children: creativity tasks given in a relaxed, untimed, game-like atmosphere, scored for the number and uniqueness of associations. Under these conditions creativity was largely independent of intelligence, giving four groups (high or low on each) with distinct profiles — for example, high-creative, low-intelligence children were the most disadvantaged in the classroom.

The relationship between intelligence and creativity. Across studies the correlation between IQ and divergent-thinking scores is positive but modest, around 0.2 to 0.3. The threshold hypothesis holds that intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity: below an IQ of about 120 the two are correlated, but above it further IQ adds little and other factors — personality (openness, tolerance of ambiguity, intrinsic motivation), knowledge and environment — decide creative output. Getzels and Jackson's and Wallach and Kogan's findings both support treating creativity as a distinct dimension, especially when it is measured under permissive, game-like conditions. Worked: in Guilford's version with five operations, five contents and six products, the Structure of Intellect contains 5 × 5 × 6 = 150 distinct abilities.

Key takeaways

Spearman: g plus specific factors; Thurstone: seven primary mental abilities; Cattell: fluid versus crystallised intelligence and investment theory; Jensen: Level I associative versus Level II conceptual ability.
Gardner proposed seven (later eight) multiple intelligences; Sternberg's triarchic theory ("Stenberg" in the syllabus) has componential, experiential and contextual parts; Goleman's emotional intelligence has five domains, building on Salovey and Mayer.
Das, Kar and Parrila's PASS model — planning, attention, simultaneous and successive processing — rests on Luria's three functional units and is measured by the Cognitive Assessment System.
Guilford distinguished divergent from convergent production within his Structure of Intellect; Torrance built the standard creativity tests; Getzels and Jackson and Wallach and Kogan showed creativity to be distinct from IQ.
Intelligence and creativity correlate modestly; the threshold hypothesis places the break at an IQ of about 120, above which personality, motivation and environment matter more.

Practice questions (10)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

In the PASS theory of Das, Kar and Parrila, the ability to integrate separate stimuli into a single whole, as in solving matrices, is:
1. Successive processing
2. Simultaneous processing
3. Planning
4. Attention–arousal
Show answer
Answer: B — Simultaneous processing
Simultaneous processing synthesises elements into a whole (matrices, spatial relations); successive processing handles serial order; planning selects and evaluates strategies; attention–arousal maintains alertness and focus.
The PASS model of intelligence is based on the neuropsychological theory of:
1. A. R. Luria
2. Charles Spearman
3. Howard Gardner
4. J. P. Guilford
Show answer
Answer: A — A. R. Luria
Das and his colleagues built PASS on Luria's three functional units of the brain: arousal–attention, coding (simultaneous and successive) and planning.
Jensen's Level II ability refers to:
1. Rote memory and associative learning, as in digit span
2. Bodily–kinaesthetic skill
3. Conceptual reasoning and abstract problem solving, closely related to g
4. Emotional self-regulation
Show answer
Answer: C — Conceptual reasoning and abstract problem solving, closely related to g
Jensen distinguished Level I (associative: rote learning, short-term memory) from Level II (cognitive: abstract reasoning, transformation of information), and identified Level II with g.
In the version of Guilford's Structure of Intellect model with five operations, five contents and six products, how many distinct abilities are there? Type a number.
Numerical answer — type the value.
Show answer
Answer: 150
The model crosses operations, contents and products, so the number of abilities is 5 × 5 × 6 = 150. The original model had 120 (5 × 4 × 6) and the final one 180 (6 × 5 × 6).
Which component of Sternberg's triarchic theory concerns adapting to, shaping and selecting environments?
1. Metacomponential
2. Contextual (practical)
3. Experiential (creative)
4. Componential (analytical)
Show answer
Answer: B — Contextual (practical)
The contextual subtheory is about practical intelligence in the real world — adapting, shaping or selecting environments. The componential subtheory covers internal mechanisms such as metacomponents, and the experiential subtheory novelty and automatisation.
Which of the following were among Gardner's ORIGINAL seven intelligences (1983)? Select all that apply.
1. Bodily–kinaesthetic
2. Intrapersonal
3. Naturalist
4. Musical
Show answer
Answer: A — Bodily–kinaesthetic; B — Intrapersonal; D — Musical
The original seven were linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily–kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Naturalist intelligence was added in 1999.
Getzels and Jackson (1962) found that, compared with a high-IQ group, their high-creative adolescents:
1. Were preferred by their teachers
2. Had higher IQs and higher achievement
3. Performed worse on every measure of achievement
4. Had a markedly lower mean IQ yet achieved as well at school
Show answer
Answer: D — Had a markedly lower mean IQ yet achieved as well at school
The high-creative group averaged about 23 IQ points lower but matched the high-IQ group in scholastic achievement; teachers, however, preferred the high-IQ pupils.
Assertion (A): Wallach and Kogan found creativity to be largely independent of intelligence in young children. Reason (R): They administered creativity tasks in a relaxed, untimed, game-like setting rather than under test-like conditions. Choose the correct option.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Both are true and R explains A: removing test pressure stopped the creativity tasks from measuring the same evaluative, convergent skills as IQ tests, so the two dimensions separated.
Which statements about Cattell's fluid and crystallised intelligence are correct? Select all that apply.
1. Crystallised intelligence tends to be maintained or to rise into old age
2. Fluid intelligence involves reasoning with novel problems
3. Crystallised intelligence is unaffected by education and culture
4. Fluid intelligence tends to decline from early adulthood
Show answer
Answer: A — Crystallised intelligence tends to be maintained or to rise into old age; B — Fluid intelligence involves reasoning with novel problems; D — Fluid intelligence tends to decline from early adulthood
Gf is novel reasoning that peaks early and declines; Gc is accumulated knowledge that holds up with age. Gc is precisely the part most dependent on education and culture, so the last statement is false.
Which of the following is one of the five domains of Goleman's model of emotional intelligence?
1. Empathy
2. Crystallised knowledge
3. Perceptual speed
4. Successive processing
Show answer
Answer: A — Empathy
Goleman's five domains are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. Perceptual speed is one of Thurstone's primary abilities, successive processing belongs to PASS, and crystallised knowledge to Cattell.