Contemporary Environmental Issues III — India and the World: Forest Movements (Chipko, Appiko, Silent Valley, Gandhamardan) and People's Biodiversity Registers, Wildlife Conservation Projects, Swachh Bharat, Green Buildings and GRIHA, Vehicular Emission Norms, Fluorosis, Arsenicosis, Goitre and Dengue, and the Minamata, Love Canal, Bhopal, Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi Disasters
2. Wildlife conservation projects
| Project | Launched | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Project Tiger | 1 April 1973, with 9 reserves | Core and buffer zones around a protected core; the National Tiger Conservation Authority, created by the 2006 amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, now runs it; all-India tiger estimation every four years, the 2022 cycle giving a mean estimate of 3,682 tigers; the number of reserves has grown to more than fifty |
| Project Elephant | 1992 | Protection of elephants, their habitats and corridors; reduction of human–elephant conflict; welfare of captive elephants; elephant reserves notified by the states; the elephant was declared the National Heritage Animal in 2010 |
| Crocodile Conservation Project | 1975, with FAO and UNDP assistance | Collection of eggs from the wild, hatching and rearing in captivity and release ("grow and release") of the gharial, the mugger and the saltwater crocodile, with protected areas such as Bhitarkanika and the National Chambal Sanctuary; it brought all three back from the brink |
| GOI–UNDP Sea Turtle Project | 1999, with the Wildlife Institute of India as implementing agency | Conservation of the olive ridley and other sea turtles, especially at the mass-nesting (arribada) beaches of Odisha, Gahirmatha, Rushikulya and the Devi river mouth; turtle excluder devices in trawl nets, seasonal fishing bans and protection of nesting beaches |
| Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (syllabus: "Indo-Rhino vision") | 2005, by the Assam government with WWF-India, the International Rhino Foundation and the Bodoland Territorial Council | Aimed at a population of 3,000 wild one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in Assam by 2020, so that not all were in Kaziranga; rhinos were translocated from Kaziranga and Pobitora to Manas from 2008 |
3. Swachh Bharat, green buildings and GRIHA, and vehicular emission norms
The Swachh Bharat Mission (syllabus: "Swachha Bharat Abhiyan") was launched on 2 October 2014, Gandhi's birth anniversary, in two parts: Gramin, for rural areas, under the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, now in the Ministry of Jal Shakti, and Urban, now under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. Its first phase aimed to end open defecation by building household and community toilets and changing behaviour, and rural India was declared open-defecation free on 2 October 2019. Later phases turned to solid and liquid waste management: the rural second phase aims at "ODF Plus" villages with waste management, and Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) 2.0, launched in 2021, at garbage-free cities through source segregation, processing of waste and remediation of legacy dumpsites. The annual Swachh Survekshan survey ranks cities on cleanliness. The environmental questions that remain are whether toilets are used and maintained, and whether faecal sludge and collected waste are safely treated rather than moved elsewhere.
A green building is designed, built and operated to minimise its use of energy, water and materials and its impact on its site and occupants over its whole life. Its features include orientation and shading suited to the climate, insulation and efficient glazing, daylighting and natural ventilation, efficient lighting and air conditioning, on-site renewable energy, rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling and low-flow fixtures, local, recycled and low-energy materials such as fly-ash bricks, good indoor air quality, and waste management during construction and use. GRIHA, the Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment, was developed by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy and adopted in 2007 as India's national rating system for green buildings; it scores a building against criteria covering the site, energy, water, materials, waste, and health and comfort, across its life cycle, and awards a rating of one to five stars. Other systems used in India are the Indian Green Building Council's ratings and the American LEED system; the Energy Conservation Building Code (2007, revised 2017) sets minimum energy standards for large commercial buildings, and the Eco-Niwas Samhita (2018) does so for homes.
Vehicular emission norms in India, the Bharat Stage (BS) standards set under the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, follow the European standards. Nationwide norms began with India 2000, equivalent to Euro I; BS II, BS III and BS IV were introduced first in Delhi and other major cities and then nationwide, BS IV across the country from April 2017. India then skipped BS V and moved straight to BS VI from 1 April 2020, which required fuel with no more than 10 ppm of sulphur, against 50 ppm for BS IV, and sharply cut the permitted particulate matter and nitrogen oxides, especially from diesel vehicles, which now need particulate filters and selective catalytic reduction. A second stage of BS VI from April 2023 added real driving emission testing and stricter on-board diagnostics. Other measures include the Supreme Court-ordered shift of Delhi's buses, taxis and auto-rickshaws to compressed natural gas around 2000–2002, pollution-under-control certificates, fuel-efficiency norms, a vehicle scrappage policy (2021) and the promotion of electric vehicles.
4. Epidemiological issues: fluorosis, arsenicosis, goitre and dengue
| Disease | Environmental cause | Effects | Distribution and control |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fluorosis | Long-term intake of excess fluoride, mainly from groundwater in contact with fluoride-bearing rocks; IS 10500 sets an acceptable limit of 1.0 mg/L and a permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L in the absence of an alternative source | Dental fluorosis (mottled, stained teeth) at lower excess; skeletal fluorosis (stiff, painful joints, bone deformities) at higher, prolonged doses | Widespread in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat and other states; alternative safe sources and defluoridation, as by the Nalgonda technique developed by NEERI with alum and lime, or activated alumina; a national programme for its prevention and control |
| Arsenicosis (syllabus: "Arsenocosis") | Chronic intake of arsenic, released naturally from aquifer sediments into groundwater drawn by tube wells; IS 10500 sets 0.01 mg/L | Skin pigmentation changes and hardened patches on palms and soles (keratosis), then cancers of the skin, lung and bladder, and damage to blood vessels and nerves | The Ganga–Brahmaputra plains, especially West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Assam, and Bangladesh; safe surface-water supply, deeper arsenic-free aquifers and removal plants |
| Goitre | Iodine deficiency, typical of soils leached of iodine in mountains and flood plains, such as the Himalayan belt, sometimes worsened by goitrogens in food | Enlarged thyroid; in pregnancy, cretinism and impaired brain development of the child; iodine deficiency disorders are a leading preventable cause of intellectual disability | The National Goitre Control Programme (1962), renamed the National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme in 1992; universal iodisation of edible salt, with at least 30 ppm of iodine at production and 15 ppm at the consumer level |
| Dengue | A virus (four serotypes, DENV-1 to DENV-4) spread by the day-biting Aedes aegypti mosquito, which breeds in clean water stored or collected in containers, coolers, tyres and pots; urbanisation, water storage and warmer, wetter conditions favour it | High fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, joint and muscle pain ("breakbone fever") and rash; severe dengue with bleeding, plasma leakage and shock, more likely on a second infection with a different serotype | Endemic across India, peaking after the monsoon; no specific antiviral, so control is by removing breeding sites, source reduction, larvicides and personal protection, under the national vector-borne disease control programme |
Two worked intakes. An adult drinking 3 litres a day of groundwater with 2 mg/L of fluoride takes in 3 × 2 = 6 mg of fluoride a day from water alone, above what the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L would allow (4.5 mg). And a person eating 10 g of salt a day iodised at the consumer-level minimum of 15 ppm (15 mg of iodine per kilogram) takes in 0.010 kg × 15 mg/kg = 0.15 mg, that is 150 µg, of iodine, which matches the usual recommended daily intake for an adult.
5. Environmental disasters: Minamata, Love Canal, Bhopal, Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi
| Disaster | Place and date | What happened | Consequences and lessons |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minamata disease (syllabus: "Minnamata") | Minamata Bay, Kumamoto, Japan; officially identified in 1956 | The Chisso Corporation's chemical factory discharged wastewater containing methylmercury, formed in its acetaldehyde process, into the bay; it biomagnified in fish and shellfish eaten by local people | A severe neurological disease (loss of sensation, ataxia, impaired vision and hearing, and congenital cases through the placenta), with thousands of certified victims; a second outbreak at Niigata; the Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013) is named after it |
| Love Canal | Niagara Falls, New York, USA; emergency declared in 1978 | Hooker Chemical had buried some 20,000 tonnes of chemical waste in an abandoned canal in the 1940s and early 1950s; a school and homes were built over it, and chemicals later seeped into basements and yards | Evacuation of hundreds of families; the case led to the US Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, the "Superfund" law, of 1980, which makes polluters liable for cleaning up hazardous waste sites |
| Bhopal gas disaster | Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh; night of 2–3 December 1984 | About 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate escaped from a storage tank at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant after water entered it, while safety systems were inadequate or out of service | Thousands died within days and many more later, with lasting lung, eye and other injuries to hundreds of thousands; it led to the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, the Factories Act amendment of 1987, the hazardous chemical rules of 1989, the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and the Supreme Court's doctrine of absolute liability (1986); contamination of the site remains |
| Chernobyl | Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Ukraine, then in the Soviet Union; 26 April 1986 | During a safety test at low power, reactor 4, a graphite-moderated RBMK design, suffered a power surge, a steam explosion and a graphite fire that released large amounts of radioactivity across Europe | Rated level 7, the highest on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale; deaths among plant workers and firefighters from acute radiation sickness, thousands of thyroid cancers in people exposed as children to iodine-131, and a 30 km exclusion zone that remains |
| Fukushima Daiichi (syllabus: "Fukusima") | Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, Japan; 11 March 2011 | A magnitude 9.0 earthquake and the tsunami it caused knocked out off-site and emergency power, so cooling failed and the cores of three reactors melted, with hydrogen explosions in reactor buildings | Also rated level 7; the evacuation of more than a hundred thousand people; contaminated water stored on site, and the release of treated water to the sea from August 2023; renewed debate on nuclear safety, siting and defence against natural hazards worldwide |
Key takeaways
- Chipko (Chamoli, 1973; Gaura Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sunderlal Bahuguna), Appiko (Uttara Kannada, 1983; Panduranga Hegde), Silent Valley (Kerala; project dropped 1983, national park 1984) and Gandhamardan (Odisha; BALCO bauxite mining halted); People's Biodiversity Registers are prepared by Biodiversity Management Committees under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
- Project Tiger 1973, Crocodile 1975, Project Elephant 1992, the GOI–UNDP Sea Turtle Project 1999 (Wildlife Institute of India) and Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (2005; 3,000 rhinos in seven protected areas of Assam).
- Swachh Bharat began on 2 October 2014 (rural India declared open-defecation free in 2019; Urban 2.0 from 2021); GRIHA (TERI with MNRE, 2007) rates green buildings one to five stars; BS VI came nationwide on 1 April 2020 with 10 ppm sulphur fuel, skipping BS V.
- Fluorosis (fluoride above 1.5 mg/L; Nalgonda technique), arsenicosis (arsenic above 0.01 mg/L in Ganga–Brahmaputra groundwater), goitre (iodine deficiency; salt iodised to 15 ppm at the consumer) and dengue (Aedes aegypti, four serotypes, clean stored water).
- Minamata (methylmercury, identified 1956), Love Canal (buried waste, 1978; Superfund 1980), Bhopal (methyl isocyanate, 2–3 December 1984; EPA 1986), Chernobyl (26 April 1986, RBMK reactor 4, level 7) and Fukushima Daiichi (11 March 2011, earthquake and tsunami, level 7).
Practice questions (10)
Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.
The Appiko movement, which carried the message of Chipko to the Western Ghats, began in 1983 in which state?
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Answer: B — Karnataka
Appiko, Kannada for "to hug", began at Salkani in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka under Panduranga Hegde. Silent Valley was in Kerala, Gandhamardan in Odisha, and Chipko in the Chamoli district of present-day Uttarakhand.An adult drinks 3 litres a day of groundwater containing 2 mg/L of fluoride. How many milligrams of fluoride does the adult take in each day from this water?
Numerical answer — type the value.
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Answer: 6
Daily intake = volume × concentration = 3 L × 2 mg/L = 6 mg. At the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L the same volume would supply 4.5 mg, so this water, above the limit, puts the drinker at risk of dental and, over years, skeletal fluorosis.Under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, the People's Biodiversity Register (syllabus: "People Biodiversity register") is prepared by
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Answer: D — the Biodiversity Management Committee of the local body, with local people
Each local body sets up a Biodiversity Management Committee, which prepares the register in consultation with local people, with guidance from the State Biodiversity Board and the National Biodiversity Authority. It records local resources and traditional knowledge and supports benefit sharing.Which statements about India's wildlife conservation projects are correct? Select all that apply.
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Answer: A — Indian Rhino Vision 2020 aimed at 3,000 wild rhinos in seven protected areas of Assam; D — Project Tiger was launched on 1 April 1973
Project Tiger dates from 1 April 1973, and Indian Rhino Vision 2020, begun in 2005, sought 3,000 rhinos spread over seven protected areas in Assam. Project Elephant came in 1992 and the Crocodile Conservation Project in 1975.When India moved to Bharat Stage VI emission norms nationwide on 1 April 2020, the maximum sulphur content permitted in motor fuel became
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Answer: B — 10 ppm
BS VI fuel carries no more than 10 ppm of sulphur, against 50 ppm under BS IV; the low sulphur is needed for the particulate filters and catalysts of BS VI vehicles. India skipped BS V and went directly from BS IV to BS VI.Assertion (A): The Bhopal gas disaster of December 1984 was followed by the enactment of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Reason (R): The gas that escaped at Bhopal was methyl isocyanate from a pesticide plant. Choose the correct option.
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Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
Both statements are true, but R does not explain A. The Act followed because the disaster exposed the absence of a comprehensive law and central powers to regulate hazardous industry; the identity of the gas is a fact about the accident, not the reason Parliament legislated.Which pairing of environmental disaster and cause is correct?
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Answer: B — Minamata: methylmercury in factory wastewater; Love Canal: chemical waste buried under housing; Chernobyl: reactor explosion during a safety test
Minamata disease came from methylmercury discharged by the Chisso factory, Love Canal from chemical waste buried in an old canal, and Chernobyl from a power surge and explosion during a test. Cadmium caused itai-itai disease, methyl isocyanate was Bhopal, and the tsunami and hydrogen explosions were Fukushima.Which statements about dengue are correct? Select all that apply.
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Answer: A — Its vector breeds in clean water collected in containers, coolers and tyres; B — The virus has four serotypes, and a second infection with a different one raises the risk of severe disease; C — It is spread by the day-biting Aedes aegypti mosquito
Dengue is a viral disease with four serotypes, carried by the day-biting Aedes aegypti, which breeds in clean water held in household containers, so source reduction is the main control. A protozoan carried by night-biting Anopheles describes malaria.A person eats 10 g of salt a day, iodised at 15 ppm (15 mg of iodine per kg of salt). How many micrograms of iodine does the person take in each day from the salt?
Numerical answer — type the value.
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Answer: 150
10 g = 0.010 kg, and 0.010 kg × 15 mg/kg = 0.15 mg = 150 µg, about the recommended daily intake for an adult. Forgetting to convert grams to kilograms gives 150 mg, a thousand times too much, and leaving the answer in milligrams gives 0.15.The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of 2011 (syllabus: "Fukusima") was set off by
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Answer: B — a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami that knocked out power and cooling, leading to meltdowns in three reactors
On 11 March 2011 the earthquake and tsunami cut off-site and backup power at Fukushima Daiichi, cooling failed, and three reactor cores melted, with hydrogen explosions; it was rated level 7. The low-power test and power surge describe Chernobyl (1986), and methyl isocyanate was Bhopal.