Resource and Human Geography of Rajasthan
2. Agriculture: seasons, crops and crop belts
Rajasthan has two main seasons. The kharif crops (sown with the monsoon, harvested October-November) are bajra, jowar, maize, moth, guar, groundnut, soybean and cotton. The rabi crops (sown October-November, harvested March-April) are wheat, barley, gram and mustard. Because rain is erratic and a large share of the sown area is unirrigated, output swings from year to year.
Rajasthan is among India's leading producers of bajra and rapeseed-mustard, grows most of India's guar and moth, and is the leading wool-producing state. The exact production share changes each year, so treat the rank as a pattern, not a fixed number. Licit opium poppy is a regulated crop of the Hadoti-Mewar belt, around Chittorgarh.
| Belt | Characteristic crops |
|---|---|
| Western arid (Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner) | Bajra, moth, guar; cumin in the Jodhpur-Barmer-Jalore-Nagaur belt; groundnut in Bikaner |
| Canal command (Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh) | Wheat, cotton, mustard and kinnow |
| Eastern plains (Alwar, Bharatpur, Sawai Madhopur) | Mustard, wheat, bajra |
| Hadoti (Kota, Bundi, Baran, Jhalawar) | Soybean, wheat, coriander, oranges at Jhalawar |
| South (Udaipur, Banswara, Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh) | Maize, pulses; poppy near Chittorgarh |
3. Irrigation: canals, dams and traditional water harvesting
Wells and tubewells are the largest source of irrigation, and canals come second. Because the groundwater is over-drawn in many blocks, the state also depends on canals brought from outside the desert. The Indira Gandhi Canal is the key project: the idea was put forward by the engineer Kanwar Sain in the late 1940s, construction began in 1958 as the Rajasthan Canal, and it was renamed on 2 November 1984 after the death of Indira Gandhi. It starts from the Harike barrage at the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas in Punjab; the Rajasthan feeder (about 204 km) reaches Hanumangarh and the main canal (about 445 km) runs on through Bikaner to end near Jaisalmer, with branches reaching Barmer and other districts. Stage I and Stage II are commonly dated to 1983-86 and 2010 respectively.
| Project | River or source and place | Region served |
|---|---|---|
| Indira Gandhi Canal | Sutlej-Beas, from Harike barrage | North-west: Hanumangarh to Jaisalmer, Barmer |
| Gang Canal (1927) | Sutlej; built under Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner | Sri Ganganagar |
| Chambal project | Chambal: Rana Pratap Sagar at Rawatbhata, Jawahar Sagar, Kota barrage (shared with Madhya Pradesh) | Kota, Bundi and Baran |
| Mahi Bajaj Sagar | Mahi, in Banswara | Banswara, Dungarpur |
| Bisalpur dam | Banas, in Tonk; completed 1999 | Drinking water for Jaipur and Ajmer; irrigation |
| Jawai dam | Jawai, a Luni tributary, in Pali | Pali and the Marwar region |
Traditional systems are part of the answer to scarcity. The tanka (a covered underground tank) and kund store roof and courtyard rain in Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer; the khadin is an embanked farm that holds run-off to wet the soil for rabi sowing, associated with Jaisalmer; the johad is an earthen check-dam in Alwar district revived by community effort; baoris and jhalaras are stepwells for towns and temples.
4. Livestock, breeds and agricultural science
Livestock is the second pillar of the arid economy, and Rajasthan is the leading wool-producing state and the main home of the camel. The camel population has fallen between successive livestock censuses (about 2.13 lakh in Rajasthan in the 20th Livestock Census, 2019, against about 3.25 lakh in 2012), and the Rajasthan Camel (Prohibition of Slaughter and Regulation of Temporary Migration or Export) Act, passed in 2015, restricts slaughter and export of camels. Breeds are tied to regions, so recall them with the places.
| Animal | Breed | Region |
|---|---|---|
| Cattle | Tharparkar | Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur |
| Cattle | Rathi | Bikaner, Sri Ganganagar, Jaisalmer |
| Cattle | Nagauri (bullocks) | Nagaur |
| Sheep | Chokla (Shekhawati) | Churu, Jhunjhunu, Sikar |
| Sheep | Marwari, Magra | Jodhpur, Pali; Bikaner, Jaisalmer |
| Goat | Sirohi, Jakhrana | Sirohi; Alwar |
| Camel | Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri | Bikaner; Jaisalmer |
Science supports the sector: CAZRI at Jodhpur (1959) for arid agriculture, the Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute at Avikanagar in Tonk district (1962) for sheep and wool, and a national research centre on the camel at Bikaner. The Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University at Bikaner and the agricultural university at Udaipur serve the arid and the southern belts.
5. Minerals, oil and power
The Aravalli is the mineral belt, and the western basins hold industrial and fuel minerals. Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining and is the source of white marble from Makrana (the stone of the Taj Mahal) and of the Jodhpur sandstone called Chittar Patthar.
| Mineral | Chief places and districts | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Zinc and lead | Rampura Agucha (Bhilwara), Rajpura-Dariba (Rajsamand), Zawar (Udaipur) | Galvanising, batteries, alloys |
| Copper | Khetri (Jhunjhunu) | Wire, alloys |
| Salt | Sambhar, Didwana, Pachpadra | Edible and industrial salt |
| Marble and sandstone | Makrana (Nagaur); Jodhpur; Dholpur | Building stone |
| Lignite | Bikaner (Palana), Barmer | Fuel for power |
| Gypsum | Bikaner, Nagaur, Jaisalmer | Cement, fertiliser, soil reclamation |
| Crude oil | Mangala and neighbouring fields, Barmer basin; discoveries from 2004 | Fuel, petrochemical feedstock |
In power, the state has coal and lignite thermal stations (Kota, Suratgarh, Chhabra, Kalisindh), the Rawatbhata atomic power station on the Chambal reservoir in Chittorgarh, hydro stations on the Chambal and Mahi, and above all solar and wind capacity, because the state has clear skies, vast open land and strong winds. The Bhadla Solar Park in the Thar, with about 2,245 MW reported as commissioned by around 2020, is among the largest solar parks in the world; wind farms cluster around Jaisalmer. Capacity figures change every year, so check the date on any number.
6. Population and urbanisation (Census 2011)
The Census of India has counted the people every ten years; the last full count for which the figures below are given is Census 2011, and a district-wise picture follows the 33-district map of that time. These figures stay valid until the next census is published.
| Indicator | Figure |
|---|---|
| Population | 68,548,437; about 5.7% of India; eighth-ranked state in Census 2011 (seventh after Telangana was formed in 2014) |
| Density | About 200 persons per sq km |
| Sex ratio | 928 females per 1,000 males (India 943) |
| Literacy | About 66%; female literacy among the lowest of all states |
| Urban share | About 24.9% |
| Scheduled Tribes | 9,238,534 persons, 13.48% of the population |
District contrasts follow the physical map. Jaipur is the most populous district (about 66 lakh) and also among the densest (nearly 600 per sq km), while Jaisalmer is the least dense (about 17 per sq km). The lowest sex ratio is in Dholpur (about 845; Jaisalmer, at about 849, is also among the lowest). The sex ratio is highest in Dungarpur (just under 1,000), a tribal district. The desert districts of Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Barmer recorded the fastest decadal growth, above 30 per cent. Kota, with about 60 per cent urban population, is the most urbanised district. Literacy is highest in Kota and Jaipur (both about 76 to 77 per cent) and lowest in Jalore and Sirohi (about 55 per cent). Published district tables differ slightly in the decimals, so learn the order, not the decimal. The state's cities with a million or more people in Census 2011 were Jaipur, Jodhpur and Kota.
7. Tribes, geo-heritage and tourism
Rajasthan has twelve notified Scheduled Tribes. The Meena and the Bhil groups are the two largest: the Bhil group (with its sub-tribes) accounts for about 44 per cent of the ST population and the Meena for about 47 per cent in Census 2011. The Sahariya of Baran district are the state's only particularly vulnerable tribal group. The Aravalli and the southern hills are the tribal homeland: Banswara (about 76 per cent ST), Dungarpur (about 71 per cent) and Pratapgarh (about 63 per cent) are the districts where tribes are the majority on the Census 2011 district map.
Geo-heritage is the new Mains angle. The UNESCO Global Geoparks programme recognises a single area of internationally significant geology that is managed for education, conservation and local development together. Rajasthan's potential rests on its ancient rocks and fossils: the Jodhpur Group-Malani Igneous Suite contact at Jodhpur, which the Geological Survey of India has declared a National Geological Monument; the Akal Wood Fossil Park near Jaisalmer, also a National Geological Monument and under the jurisdiction of the Desert National Park; and the Aravalli folds and mineral belts. These sites have the geology; the case for a geopark depends on management and community use, which is the part still to be built.
| Setting | Attractions |
|---|---|
| Desert | Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur: forts, dunes, camel safaris |
| Lakes and hills | Udaipur lakes; Mount Abu, the state's only hill station |
| Wildlife | Ranthambore, Sariska, Keoladeo, Desert National Park |
| Shekhawati | Painted havelis of Jhunjhunu, Sikar and Churu |
| Pilgrimage | Pushkar and Ajmer; Nathdwara; Ramdevra |
| Golden Triangle | Jaipur, with Delhi and Agra |
Key takeaways
- Soils follow rainfall: sandy desert soils in the west, alluvium in the east, black soil in Hadoti, red and yellow soil in the south; the main problems are wind erosion, canal-command salinity and Chambal ravines.
- Crops match water and soil: bajra, guar and moth in the arid west, wheat, cotton and mustard under canals, soybean and coriander in Hadoti, maize in the south; Rajasthan leads in bajra, mustard, guar and wool, but shares change yearly.
- The Indira Gandhi Canal (begun 1958, renamed 1984) brings Sutlej-Beas water from Harike in Punjab to the north-west; wells and tubewells remain the largest source, and tanka, khadin and johad are the traditional answers.
- Livestock and its science: Rajasthan leads in wool and camels; CAZRI Jodhpur (1959) and the sheep and wool institute at Avikanagar (1962) support the sector.
- The Aravalli carries zinc-lead, copper and marble; the west has lignite, gypsum, salt and the Barmer oil fields; solar and wind, with Bhadla at 2,245 MW by 2020, define the new power geography.
- At Census 2011 Rajasthan had 68,548,437 people, a sex ratio of 928, about 66 per cent literacy and 24.9 per cent urban; tribes are 13.48 per cent, concentrated in Banswara and Dungarpur, and geo-heritage and tourism build on the landscape.
Practice questions (16)
Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.
Which soil is characteristic of the Hadoti plateau (Kota, Bundi, Baran and Jhalawar)?
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Answer: B — Black soil
Hadoti has black soil that holds moisture and suits soybean, cotton, coriander and oranges. Desert soil belongs to the west, red and yellow soil to the southern hills around Udaipur and Banswara, and saline soil to low basins such as the lower Luni.From which headworks does the Indira Gandhi Canal draw its water?
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Answer: A — Harike barrage at the Sutlej-Beas confluence in Punjab
The canal begins at the Harike barrage in Punjab, where the Sutlej and Beas meet, and enters Rajasthan at Hanumangarh. The other three are Rajasthan dams on the Chambal, Mahi and Banas, none of which feeds this canal.Which mineral is mined at Khetri in Jhunjhunu district?
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Answer: C — Copper
Khetri is the copper-mining town of the Aravalli belt. Zinc comes from Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba and Rampura Agucha, lignite from Bikaner and Barmer, and gypsum from Bikaner, Nagaur and Jaisalmer.Which Scheduled Tribe, found mainly in Baran district, is the state's particularly vulnerable tribal group?
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Answer: C — Sahariya
The Sahariya of Baran are the only particularly vulnerable tribal group in Rajasthan. Bhil, Garasia and Damor are tribes of the southern Aravalli belt and are not classed this way.Which one of the following pairings of mineral and place is INCORRECT?
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Answer: D — Zinc and Khetri
Khetri is a copper centre, not a zinc one. Rampura Agucha is a zinc-lead mine, Sambhar yields salt and Makrana is the marble town of Nagaur.Match each breed with its region.
(i) Tharparkar cattle
(ii) Chokla sheep
(iii) Bikaneri camel
(iv) Nagauri bullock
w Bikaner x Nagaur y Shekhawati z Jaisalmer-BarmerShow answer
Answer: A — (i)-z, (ii)-y, (iii)-w, (iv)-x
Tharparkar belongs to the Jaisalmer-Barmer belt, Chokla to Shekhawati, Bikaneri to Bikaner and Nagauri to Nagaur. Swapping the camel and the sheep breeds is the usual error, because Bikaner also has sheep.Consider the following statements about the Indira Gandhi Canal.
P. Construction began in 1958 under the name Rajasthan Canal.
Q. It was renamed on 2 November 1984 after the death of Indira Gandhi.
R. Its headworks are at Harike, inside Rajasthan.
S. Its main canal runs through Hanumangarh and Bikaner.
Which of the statements is/are correct?Show answer
Answer: C — P, Q and S only
P, Q and S are correct. R is wrong because Harike is in Punjab, on the Sutlej and Beas, so every option containing R fails.Arrange these events of the Indira Gandhi Canal in chronological order, earliest first.
P. Construction begins as the Rajasthan Canal
Q. The engineer Kanwar Sain puts forward the idea
R. The canal is renamed after Indira Gandhi
S. Stage II is completedShow answer
Answer: D — Q, P, R, S
The idea came in the late 1940s, construction began in 1958, the canal was renamed in 1984 and Stage II was completed in 2010. Putting the rename after Stage II is the trap, because the renaming happened while Stage I was still being finished.Bisalpur dam, completed in 1999 and a source of drinking water for Jaipur and Ajmer, stands on which river and in which district?
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Answer: B — Banas, in Tonk
Bisalpur is a gravity dam on the Banas near Bisalpur in Tonk district. The Jawai dam is on the Luni tributary in Pali, Mahi Bajaj Sagar is on the Mahi in Banswara, and the Chambal dams are at Rawatbhata and Kota.Four districts are described using Census 2011 figures. W: density about 17 per sq km, the thinnest of all districts. X: the most populous district, density nearly 600. Y: the highest sex ratio of any district, just under 1,000, and over 70% Scheduled Tribes. Z: about 60% urban. Which identification is correct?
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Answer: C — W Jaisalmer, X Jaipur, Y Dungarpur, Z Kota
Jaisalmer has the lowest density, Jaipur the largest population, Dungarpur the highest sex ratio with a tribal majority, and Kota the highest urban share. Barmer is thin but not the thinnest, Banswara's sex ratio (about 980) is lower than Dungarpur's, Ajmer is less urban than Kota and Jodhpur is not the most populous.According to Census 2011, what share of Rajasthan's population belonged to the Scheduled Tribes?
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Answer: B — About 13.5 per cent
Scheduled Tribes were 9,238,534 persons, 13.48 per cent of the state. The figure of about 17.8 per cent is the Scheduled Caste share, and 21.3 per cent is the 2001-2011 decadal growth of the whole population.In which pair of districts did Scheduled Tribes form the majority of the population at Census 2011?
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Answer: C — Banswara and Dungarpur
Scheduled Tribes were about 76 per cent in Banswara and about 71 per cent in Dungarpur (Pratapgarh, about 63 per cent, is also a majority district but is not among the options). Jaisalmer and Barmer are desert districts with small tribal shares, and Alwar, Bharatpur, Kota and Bundi are plains or plateau districts with few tribal people.Bhadla Solar Park, reported to have about 2,245 MW of commissioned capacity around 2020, lies in which natural region of Rajasthan?
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Answer: D — The Thar desert
Bhadla is in the Thar, where clear skies and open land favour solar generation. Hadoti, the Aravalli and the eastern plains have more rain, cloud or settlement and are not the setting for such a park.Consider the following statements.
P. Rampura Agucha in Bhilwara is a zinc-lead mine.
Q. Zawar in Udaipur is a zinc-mining centre.
R. Sambhar is a source of salt.
S. Khetri in Rajsamand is the main zinc town.
Which of the statements is/are correct?Show answer
Answer: A — P, Q and R only
P, Q and R are correct. S is wrong twice over: Khetri lies in Jhunjhunu district and is a copper centre. Rajsamand's mining name is Rajpura-Dariba.Which of the following is a site that the Geological Survey of India has declared a National Geological Monument in Rajasthan?
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Answer: A — The Jodhpur Group-Malani Igneous Suite contact at Jodhpur
The Jodhpur Group-Malani Igneous Suite contact at Jodhpur was notified as a National Geological Monument by the Geological Survey of India. Sambhar and Keoladeo are Ramsar wetlands, and Ranthambore is a wildlife area, none a geological monument.Which traditional structure of Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer is a covered underground tank that stores rain-water collected from a prepared catchment?
Show answer
Answer: D — Tanka
The tanka is a covered underground tank for rain-water. The khadin is an embanked farm, the johad an earthen check-dam of Alwar, and the jhalara a stepwell for towns and temples.